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The 

California Fruits 

and How to Grow Them 



A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE YIELDED 

GREATEST SUCCESS, WITH THE LISTS OF 

VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO 

THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS 

OF THE STATE 



By EDWARD J^-'WICKSON, A. M. 

Dean and Professor of Auriculture in the College of Agriculture of the 

University of California; Director and Horticulturist of the 

Agricultural Experiment Station; Author of "California 

Vegetables in Garden and Field;" Editor of 

The Pacific Rural Press; Member of 

the National Council of 

Horticulture, Etc. 



FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND EXTENDED 



SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 
PACIFIC RURAL PRESS 

NINETEEN HUNDRED TEN 



.^^-^ 



^^^^ 



Copyright, 1910. 

By E. J. Wickson and Pacific Rural Press, 

Published March, 1910. 



BOLTE & BRADEN CO. 

printers and pttbmshers 
San Francisco - Cal. 



C.0U^59737 



PREFACE. 



The Fourth Edition of this treatise met a wider de- 
mand than anticipated and the Fifth Edition has to be 
undertaken within a year from the publication date of its 
predecessor — bringing the work to the end of its thir- 
teenth thousand. The writer rejoices in this large 
demand as a token of the usefulness of the undertaking. 

The Fifth Edition returns to large octavo form as 
preferable to a quarto for a book which is intended to be 
always at hand as a guide in real work. Technical works 
are largely in octavo form. The picturesque quarto of the 
Fourth Edition, while admired by connoisseurs in art 
printing, was condemned by others who found it agreeing 
neither in length or breadth with other books they com- 
monly used and therefore inconvenient and undesirable. 

In the preparation of the Fifth Edition the writer has 
seized the opportunity to bring the contents abreast of a 
new decade by incorporating the most recent lessons of 
progressive experience and repeats the request which he 
has made in earlier editions that all readers whose obser- 
vation and work teach them any better way than he has 
described shall share with him the advantage of such 
greater wisdom. 

EDWARD J. WICKSON. 



University of California, 

Berkeley, March, 1910. 



CONTENTS 



PART ONE: GENERAL. 
Chapter 

I The Climate of California and its Modifications. 

II Why the California Climate favors the Growth of Fruit. 

III The Fruit Soils of California. 

IV The Wild Fruits of California. 
V The California Mission Fruits. 

VI Introduction of New Fruit Varieties. 

PART TWO: CULTURAL. 

VII Clearing the Land for Fruit. 

VIII The Nursery. 

IX Budding and Grafting. 

X Preparation for Planting. 

XI Planting the Trees. 

XII Pruning Trees and Thinning Fruit. 

XIII Cultivation. 

XIV Fertilizers for Trees and Vines. 
XV Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines. 

PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS. 

XVI Commercial Fruit Varieties. 

XVII The Apple. 

XVIII The Apricot. 

XIX The Cherry. 

XX The Peach. 

XXI The Nectarine. 

XXII The Pear. 

XXIII Plums and Prunes. 

XXIV The Quince. 



PART FOUR: THE GRAPE. 
Chapter 

XXV The Grape Industry. 

XXVI Propagating and Planting Vines. 

XXVII Pruning and Care of the Vine. 

XXVIII Grape Varieties in California. 

PART FIVE: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS. 

XXIX The Date. 

XXX The Fig. 

XXXI The Olive. 

XXXII The Orange. 

XXXIII The Pomelo or Grape Fruit. 

XXXIV The Lemon. 

XXXV Minor Semi-Tropical Fruits. 

PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS. 
XXXVI Berries and Currants. 

PART SEVEN: NUTS. 
XXXVII Nut Growing in California. 

PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION. 
XXXVIII Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Preserving. 

PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION. 

XXXIX Injurious Insects. 

XL Diseases of Trees and Vines. 

XLI Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds. 

XLII Protection from Wind and Frost. 

PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS. 
XLIII Utilization of Fruit Wastes. 
Topical Index. 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS 



PART ONE: GENERAL 
CHAPTER I 

THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL 
MODIFICATIONS 



In climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in Cali- 
fornia almost an epitome of the whole United States, with added 
climatic characters peculiarly our own. We have high mountain 
valleys with wintry temperature-conditions, where only hardy 
northern fruits can be grown ; we have hot valleys where the date 
palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine, while its feet 
are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the sandy surface; 
but we can not claim tropical conditions, because our dry air denies 
us many strictly tropical growths, although we have frostless sites 
for them. Intermediate between the cold and snow of the moun- 
tains and the heat and sand of the desert, we have every describable 
modification and gradation, and, naturally, it is between these 
extremes that our richest inheritance of horticultural adaptation lies. 

When this breadth and scope of our horticultural adaptations 
is realized, it becomes apparent that an enumeration of the fruits 
we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue of the 
known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly tropical. 
Wherever there is a northern or southern departure from the 
equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where the same 
is accomplished by elevation upon tropical mountainside or plateau, 
there also are fruits which find a welcoming home in California, 
and are improved by the intelligent cultivation and selection which 
here prevail. On the other hand, it has been abundantly demon- 
strated, during recent years, by official awards at great exhibitions 
and by the sharp criteria of the markets as well, that the fruits of 
wintry regions are quite as much benefited by transfer to proper 
locations in California as are the people who come to grow them. 
From north and south alike, then, California makes grand acquisi- 



10 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



tions and includes within her area the adaptations of the whole 
country, with some which no other State possesses. 

But while this horticultural scope is claimed for the State as a 
whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within the State 
must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures have followed 
ill choice of location for the purpose intended. Whenever certain 
California fruits have been ill spoken of, they have been produced 
in the wrong places, or by ill-advised methods. It is possible, 
then, to produce both poor and perfect fruit of a given kind. It 
may be said this can be done anywhere by the extremes of culture 
and neglect, but to this proposition it must be added that in Cali- 
fornia equally excellent methods and care may produce perfection 
in one place and the opposite in another. One who seeks to know. 
California well must undertake to master both its horticultural 
greatness and littleness; and so closely are these associated, and 
so narrow the belts of special adaptations, that there are many 
counties which have a range of products nearly as great as the 
State itself. 

It is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for 
him to believe that the terms "northern" and "southern" have 
almost no horticultural significance in California; that northern 
fruits reach perfection, under proper conditions, at the south, and 
vice versa ; that some regions of greatest rainfall have to irrigate 
most frequently; that some of greatest heat have sharpest valley 
frosts ; that some fruits can be successfully grown through a north 
and south distance of 500 miles, but can not be successfully carried 
a few hundred feet of either less or greater elevation ; that on the 
same parallel of latitude within a hundred miles of distance, from 
coast to mountainside, one can continuously gather marketable 
Bartlett pears for three months — not to mention the second crop, 
which is often of account on the same trees in the same season. 

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per- 
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern 
certain general conditions, of both nature and culture, which may 
be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively 
Californian. 

The climate of the Pacific Coast is described by the meteor- 
ologist as "insular or moderate," as contrasted with the "continental 
or excessive" climate of the regions east of the Sierra Nevada. The 
west coast of Europe is also insular in its climate. The northern 
limit of an annual mean temperature of 50 degrees Fahr. is 50 
degrees and 47 degrees of north latitude on western coasts of 
Europe and America respectively. But though there is this 
similarity in mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage 
pertaining to our climate over that of west Europe in that our 
range of temperature is less ; that is, extremes of heat and cold are 
nearer together, and changes are therefore much less excessive. 



CLIMATIC PECULIARITIES 



11 



This characteristic of our local climates is due in the main to 
two great agencies, one active, bringing heat, the other passive, 
shielding us from arctic influences. 

First : Our proximity to the Pacific Ocean. Professor McAdie, 
who has charge of the San Francisco office of the United States 
Weather Bureau, says : "The prevailing drift of the surface air 
in temperate latitude is from west to east. Therefore the proximity 
of the Pacific, with its mean annual temperature of 55 degrees 
Fahr.,. serves to prevent large temperature changes, because of the 
water vapor and also because the air comes landward. Whenever 
the circulation is reversed, temperatures vary." 

Second : Another agency contributing to the mild climate of 
the Pacific Coast consists in the mountain barriers upon our 
northern and eastern boundaries. It was Guyot who first called 
attention to the fact that the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade 
Mountains reach- the coast of Alaska and bend like a great arm 
around its western and southern shore, thus shutting off or deflect- 
ing the polar winds that otherwise would flow down over the 
Pacific Coast States, while California has her own additional pro- 
tection from the north in the mountain arch which has its keystone 
in Mount Shasta. 

CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS 
OF CALIFORNIA 

California is usually divided into three main areas and climates, 
each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by regions, 
more or less wide, in which these conditions merge and influence 
each other. Dr. Robertson says* : 

Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near 
the Pacific, deflected north and south, and define three distinct climatic 
belts. These may be named coast, valley and mountain; and while they 
resemble each other in having only two seasons, they are dissimilar in 
other respects. These dififerences depend upon the topography of the 
country, and are of degree rather than of kind; altitude, distance from 
the ocean, and situation with reference to mountain chains, giving to each 
region its characteristic climate. 

How similar are the conditions which prevail in these belts 
may be learned from the data shown in the following table, which 
includes points separated by nearly the whole length of the State, 
the difference in latitude of the extreme north and south points 
being seven or eight degrees. Thus, through a north or south 
distance great as that which separates the States of Georgia and 
New York, similar climatic conditions prevail in California. In the 
following table the averages are deduced from observations by the 
United States Weather Bureau observers for a long series of years : 

* Report of State Agricultural Society, 1886, p. 322. 



12 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

LOCATIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT 

FRUITS 

It is intended to describe as definitely as possible the locations 
suitable for the growth of different fruits in the special chapters 
given to those fruits, but there are a few general conditions which 
should be outlined. 



Seasonable and extreme temperatures and average rainfall in various California re- 
gions from the records of the United States Weather Bureau to the close of 1907 

U ^< ^5 rt^ rt> rt<i K- ^ £s 

t 3^ 3^ 3^ 3i 3f3 ^^ i S>g 

.STATIONS COUNTY 5" S"" 2^ 2 2(^ 2» a " 






P| 



e'2 Sg S':?! S3 



COAST ^ 

Eureka Humboldt 64 47 50 56 54 52 85 20 45.8 

San Francisco... San Francisco 155 51 55 59 59 56 101 29 22.7 

San Jose Santa Clara 95 50 57 67 60 58 104 18 14.8 

King City Monterey 333 49 57 66 60 58 114 15 10.8 

Santa Barbara. .. Santa Barbara 130 55 58 65 63 60 100 28 16.6 

Los Angeles Los Angeles 293 55 60 70 65 62 109 28 15.6 

San Diego San Diego 93 55 59 68 63 61 101 32 9.4 

VALLEY 

Redding Tehama 552 47 60 80 64 63 117 18 36.2 

Sacramento Sacramento 71 47 59 72 62 60 108 19 19.9 

Merced Merced 173 49 61 79 65 63 120 16 10.3 

Fresno Fresno 293 47 60 79 64 63 114 20 9.2 

Visalia Tulare 334 46 59 78 62 61 113 17 9.8 

FOOTHILL AND MESA 

Auburn Placer 1360 47 57 75 64. 61 110 12 33.4 

Redlands San Bernardino 1352 52 61 77 65 64 113 25 14.8 



In discussing the choice of location for an orchard it is not 
intended to speak geographically. As has already been intimated, 
latitude, which is a prime factor in geography, is of exceedingly 
small account as an indication of horticultural adaptations in 
California. The fact becomes strikingly apparent when it is known 
that the apple and the orange, fruit kings whose kingdoms lie at 
opposite borders of the temperate zone, so far distant that one 
may be called semifrigid and the other semi-tropical, have in 
California utter disregard for the parallels of latitude, which set 
metes and bounds upon them in other lands, and flourish side by 
side, in suitable localities, from San Diego to Shasta. Impressive 
as this truth may be, it is not so startling as another fact, viz., that 
fruits, in suitable interior situations, ripen earlier at the north than 
at the south — a complete reversal of the tenets of the geographer. 



THE COAST CLIMATE 13 

It is apparent then that the selection of locations for orchards 
must be made with a knowledge of special conditions governing 
the distribution of equal temperatures and other natural agencies 
contributing to the development of fruit. This distribution, as 
has been intimated, is not by parallels of latitude, great circles 
which appear as straight lines on a map, but by curves, which 
proceed in various directions, governed chiefly by topography. 
These are curves of temperature, of rainfall, of elevation, of soil 
formation and deposit. Geography retires from authority ; 
topography and climatography govern. 

Let these ruling conditions be reviewed, then, briefly : First, 
as to general areas; second, with reference to special situations 
and locations. 

COAST CLIMATE 

The chief characteristics of the coast are equable temperature, 
increasing southward ; summers cool and winters warm', as com- 
pared with the interior; abundant rainfall, decreasing considerably 
southward ; a somewhat humid atmosphere, as compared with the 
interior; frequent fogs or overcast skies; prevailing westerly winds. 

The extension of coast influence toward the interior is gov- 
erned by local topography. Coast valleys open to ocean winds are 
cooler and moister and demand hardier fruits than valleys sheltered 
by intervening ranges. Gaps and passes in the ranges are subject 
to winds of considerable force and low temperature, and are not 
generally favorable for fruit ; on the other hand, situations sheltered 
on the north and west favor growth of fruits even though quite 
near the coast. Sometimes a distance of a few miles, sometimes a 
wind-break' of natural forest or of planted trees, so modifies coast 
influences that fruits do well. Elevation on the sides of coast 
valleys secures similar results. For example, the floor of the 
Pajaro Valley is well suited for apples, late pears, cherries, plums, 
prunes, and berries (except gooseberries), while on adjacent hill- 
sides peaches do well. 

In southern California, coast winds are warmer than in the 
upper half of the State, but coast influences intrude further, as a 
rule, because the hills near the coast in southern California are low ; 
the high ranges, answering to the Coast Range of the upper part 
of the State, trending far into the interior. On the coast side of 
these ranges fruits ripen later than in sheltered interior points in 
the upper part of the State, but eastward of the mountains, where 
soil and moisture favor, or irrigation is practised, extra early loca- 
tions have been found and are now being rapidly developed — in 
the Imperial and adjacent valleys, for instance. 

Some of the horticultural effects of the conditions prevailing 
on the coast may be described as follows : 



14 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Late Ripening of Fruits. — The late ripening of fruits west of 
the mountains in southern CaHfornia has just been mentioned. 
Intrusion of coast influences has the same effect in more marked 
degree at the north because the ocean winds are colder. Directly 
on the coast, at Pescadero, San Mateo County, for example, fruits 
ripen about a month later than in Santa Clara Valley, which is just 
across the Coast Range. Napa Valley, though about forty miles 
inland and sheltered by ranges of hills, still is sufficiently affected 
by coast influences to mature fruits considerably later than Vaca 
Valley, ten or fifteen miles further east, beyond a higher range, 
which completely bars out these influences. Similar local effects 
are found in southern California. For instance, in Ventura County, 
in a canyon sixteen miles from the ocean, and at an elevation of 
sixteen hundred feet, fruits ripen three weeks earlier than on the 
coast or in the valleys opening thereon. 

Failure of Certain Fruits. — Though killing frosts are few directly 
on the coast, the deficiency in summer heat and sunshine renders 
some fruits unsatisfactory. This is especially the case in the upper 
coast region. Grapes and figs ripen imperfectly, while but a short 
distance back from the coast, in situations, sheltered by ridges 
parallel to the coast, they do well. Elevation sometimes produces 
corresponding effects. 

Pests and Diseases. — Certain blights are more prevalent under 
coast conditions. The scab blight of the apple, the curl-leaf of 
the peach, and some other blights, are prevalent on the coast and 
in coast valleys, on the river bottoms in the interior, and on the 
mountains, and less serious, or wholly absent, in the hot interior 
valleys. Some insects prefer the coast but thrive also in the 
interior, as hot dry wind is excluded by dense growth of the tree 
and the included air becomes moister above irrigated soil. A 
notable instance is the black scale, which, with the black smut 
which attends it, has long been a grievous pest of growers of 
olives and citrus fruits, and has recently become prevalent on 
deciduous fruit trees in some regions. Directly under coast influ- 
ences, moss and lichens gather quickly and should be removed. 
Spraying with alkaline washes not only kills insects but cleans 
the bark from parasitic vegetable growth. Although fruit trees 
on the coast are not so subject to sunburn as in the interior, there 
is especial value in low heading to withstand winds ; there should 
also be plenty of room given the trees, that sunshine may have free 
access to warm the ground all around the tree, which may be 
undesirable in the interior. 



VALLEY, FOOT-HILL AND MOUNTAIN CLIMATE 



VALLEY CLIMATE 



15 



The characteristics of the interior valley climate are higher 
summer and lower winter temperatures than on the coast, the 
range of temperature being nearly the same both north and south ; 
rainfall abundant in the north and decreasing rapidly southward, 
so that as a rule the interior valleys in the south half of the State 
require irrigation ; very dry air and almost constant sunshine, 
freedom from fogs and from dew in summertime ; winds occasion- 
ally strong, hot, and desiccating in summer and cold in winter. 

Local Modifications, — The term "valley climate" is broad, and 
includes everything, away from the coast to a certain elevation 
on the slope of the mountains. Certain small valleys protected 
from cold northerly winds and from fog-bearing westerly winds 
and open to the spring sunshine, have a forcing climate which 
produces the earliest maturing fruit of the season ; earlier not 
only than the coast and the mountain, as has been stated, but also 
somewhat earlier than adjacent locations in the broad, open 
valley. Slight elevation, even on the sides of small valleys, 
frequently secures freedom from winter frosts and ministers to 
early ripening. Elevation above sea-level on the rims of great 
valleys also secures similar results and gives rise to thermal belts 
in which semi-tropical fruits are successfully growing even as far 
north as Shasta County. On the floors of great valleys moderating 
influences are secured on the lee side of wide rivers and by 
planting on the river bank or on slightly elevated swells rather 
than on the level, open plain. The river bottom lands of the great 
valleys, though subject to severe frosts, are freer from the effects 
of desiccating winds than the open plains; they are, however, 
more favorable to the spread of certain blights than the plains. 

Some of the horticultural effects of valley conditions are as 
follows : Early ripening and perfection of summer and autumn 
fruits, owing to continual sunshine and dry air; forced maturity 
of certain fruits, as apples for instance, which destroys character 
and keeping quality; injury from sunburn and hot winds in 
summer, which seriously afifect both fruit and foliage of some 
varieties; occasional injury to tender fruits (semi-tropicals) and 
to young trees of hardy fruits, which have been kept growing late 
in the season, from low tempei-ature, which sometimes is reached 
suddenly on the floor of the valleys; freedom from some blights 
and insects which are prevalent on the coast, but not from others. 
Many of these minor troubles are, however, counterbalanced by 
the earliness, size, beauty, and quality of certain fruits, and by 
the most rapid and successful open-air drying of fruits, owing 
to high autumn temperature, the freedom from summer fog, dew, 
and generally from rain during the drying season. 



IQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



FOOT-HILL CLIMATE 

Foot-hill climate is usually considered as a modification of 
valley climate. It has been shown tha,t up to about two thousand 
five hundred feet, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, the 
seasonal temperatures are quite like those of the valley, but the 
rainfall increases about one inch for each hundred feet of elevation. 
There are, however, in the foot-hills, places where early spring 
heat and freedom from frost give very early ripening fruits, and 
other places at the same elevation where winter temperature drops 
below the valley minimum, and where late frosts also prevail. 
This is governed by local topography. In many of the small 
valleys among the foot-hills, both of the Sierra Nevada and the 
Coast Ranges, frosts are more severe than on the hills adjacent 
or in the broader valleys to which they are tributary. These small 
"protected valleys" are apparently warm and cozy for early 
blooming deciduous and citrus fruits, but are really very dan- 
gerous. They frequently have such narrow and obstructed open- 
ings that cold air is dammed up over their lower lands and frosts 
are more severe and later than in valleys which have ample and 
free outlets and seem less protected. 

Of course the disposition of cold air to settle in low places 
and to flow down canyons and creek-beds while the warm air 
rises and bathes the adjacent hillsides, has much to do with frost 
in the hollow and the freedom from it on the hills. The constant 
motion of the air on the slopes is also a preventive of frost, pro- 
viding the general temperature is not too low. It is not un- 
common to find in deeper valleys, protected against the western 
wind, flecks of snow and a wintry chill, with dormant vegetation, 
while one thousand feet higher up the foliage is fast developing. 



MOUNTAIN CLIMATE 

Above an elevation of two thousand five hundred to three 
thousand feet, conditions gradually intrude which resemble those 
of wintry climates. The tender fruits, the apricot, peach, etc., 
become liable to winter injury and give irregular returns, or as 
greater elevation is attained, become wholly untrustworthy. 
Early blooming of these fruits during warm spells which are fol- 
lowed by severe frosts, renders the trees unfruitful. At four 
thousand to four thousand five hundred feet the hardy apple and 
pear flourish, ripening late, and winter varieties possessing excel- 
lent keeping qualities. Here, however, winter killing of trees 
begins and locations even for hardy fruits have to be chosen with 
circumspection. 



ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES j^ 

There are elevated tracts of large extent among- the Sierras 
where the common wild plum, choke-cherry, gooseberry, and Cali- 
fornia chestnut are produced abundantly. April frosts have killed 
the fruit of those same plums, transplanted to lower ground, while 
those left in their natural situation were quite unharmed. It has 
been observed that these plum trees, with other fruits and nuts 
in their original positions, invariably occupy the broad tops of 
the great ridges instead of the sides and bottoms of ravines or 
narrow, ■ pent-up valleys. Follow nature in the choice of orchard 
sites (with due regard to a supply of moisture in the soil, either 
natural or artificial) and little hazard attends the culture of the 
hardier fruits of our latitude among the highlands of the State 
than is incident to other seemingly more favored localities. The 
beauty and quality of these mountain fruits are proverbial. 



A RULE OF GENERAL APPLICATION 

What has been thus suggested of the great variation of tem- 
perature conditions within narrow limits should lead to the con- 
clusion that not only must the kind of fruit to plant be determined 
by local observation and experience, but often varieties of these 
fruits must be chosen with reference to adaptation to local 
environment. For this reason it is impossible to compile tables 
of varieties suited for wide areas — and yet it is true that some 
varieties have shown themselves hardy and satisfactory under all 
conditions. These facts will be shown by the discussion which 
will be given to each of the different fruits. 

REST AND ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES 

Indication has already been made of regions adapted to the 
growth of early and of late fruits. There is, of course, difference 
in time of rest and of returning activity in blooming. On the 
mountains under wintry conditions the trees leaf out and bloom 
late, following more or less the habit of Eastern trees. In the 
foot-hills, the valleys, and the coast, there is less difference in 
time of rest and of leaf and bloom. Even in regions where there 
may be a month's difference in ripening of fruit, as, for example, 
in the Vacaville district, fifty miles inland, and in Berkeley, two 
miles from the bay shore, trees bloom almost at the same date. 
The difference in ripening is due to the higher temperature and 
fuller sunshine of the interior situation, which have a forcing 
effect, while the low temperature and dull skies of the summer on 
the coast retard maturity. 

The rest of the tree, in all save the mountain district, is not 
dependent upon the touch of frost. It comes rather from thirst 



18 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



than from cold. The immense weight of fruit, the vigorous growth 
of wood, and the exhaustion of moisture from the soil by the 
draught of the roots to compass this growth, are the chief causes 
which bring the sere and yellow leaf in California. It is not frost, 
for the petunias may be blooming and the tomato vines still green 
in the fields. But the time has come for a rest. The trees sleep ; 
but it is merely as a nap at midday; the early rains wake them 
soon. The roots are active first, then the buds swell, and the 
blossoms burst forth — sometimes as early as January — the almond 
first heralding the advent of California springtime. 

Sometimes this season of rest is too short for the good of the 
tree or vine. The early rains, when followed by a spring-like 
temperature, as sometimes happens, induce activity in the top as 
well as the root, and the tree is not in condition to withstand cold 
weather, which may follow. It is probable that such stimulated 
activity, suddenly checked, is responsible for more ills to tree and 
vine than are usually attributed to it. 



CHAPTER II 

WHY THE CALIFORNIA CLIMATE FAVORS THE 
GROWTH OF FRUIT 

It was "pointed oiit by, the. earliest students of meteorology, as 
related to horticulture, that perfect development of fruits depends 
upon certain atmospheric conditions], which are included in the 
term climate : First, temperature ; second, light ; third, humidity 
or atmospheric moisture, — considered wholly apart from soil 
moisture. It was also shown that temperature and humidity should 
be equable, or as free as possible from excessive extremes or rapid 
changes. 

Obviously, the chief characteristics of the California climate are : 
First, freedom from extremes of low temperature ; second, an 
abundance of sunshine ; and third, an atmosphere with a low per- 
centage of humidity. It will be interesting to introduce enough 
statistics to demonstrate these claims, and to cite reasons why these 
conditions are of special value to the fruit grower. 

THE OFFICE OF HEAT IN FRUIT PRODUCTION 

Temperature conditions may preclude the success of a fruit tree 
either by destroying it outright, by dwarfing it, or by preventing 
it from setting or ripening its fruit. Extremes of temperature 
accomplish the death of plants, and insufficient or excessive mean 
temperatures may prevent fruition without killing the plant. The 
first quality of the California climate to arrest the attention of 
fruit growers in the states east of the Rocky Mountains is the 
freedom from the effects of extremely low winter temperatures, 
to which is due Ihe deplorable failure, in the eastern and western 
states, of many of the fruit varieties from the west of Europe, and 
to escape which such zealous effort is now being so successfully 
put forth to secure hardy varieties of native and foreign origin. 

How slight is the injury from low temperatures in all parts of 
the state where fruit is largely grown may be seen from the fol- 
lowing compilation of extreme low temperatures at different points 
approximately at the same latitude on the coast, in the interior 
valleys, and on the foot-hills. 

These records will show any one familiar with winter killing of 
the leading orchard fruits that such disasters are not to be feared 
in the chief fruit regions of California. Local temperature is largely 
controlled by local conditions, as has been already pointed out, and 

19 





Nevada City 

Colfax 


7 

14 


Auburn 


12 




in 




Porterville 

Redlands 

Fall Brook 


22 

25 

24 



2Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Lowest temperature at several California points 

Coast and Coast Degrees Interior Valleys Degrees Foot-hills Degrees 

Valleys above zero above zero above zero 

Eureka 20 Redding 18 

Ukiah 12 Red Bluff 17 

Cloverdale 24 Oroville 20 

Napa 18 Marysville 20 

San Francisco 28 Sacramento 19 

San Jose 18 Merced 16 

Gilroy 20 Fresno 20 

San Miguel 15 Tulare City 14 

Los Angeles 28 Colton 22 

San Diego 32 Poway 21 

in the districts named in the table there are special locations where 
the lowest temperature probably differed a few degrees from the 
figures given. 

NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE SUMMER HEAT 

Passing beyond the freedom from winter killing, it may be 
remarked that the influence of certain degrees of heat upon the 
growth of the plant and the perfection of its fruit, has been the 
subject of much close observation. Boussingault conducted care- 
ful experiments, and showed that a temperature above a certain 
minimum of heat is found necessary for germination, another for 
chemical modification, and a third for flowering, a fourth for the 
ripening of seeds, a fifth for the elaboration of the saccharine juice§., 
and a sixth for the development of aroma or bouquet. 

Originally the mean annual temperature was alone observed, 
and the polar limits of plants, it was presumed, could be thereby 
determined. More recently it was taught that the mean tempera- 
ture of seasons is of more importance than that of the year, and 
it is believed that to the relative distribution of heat over the 
seasons rather than to the absolute amount received during the 
year, we are to attribute the fitness or unfitness of a region for the 
growth of certain kinds of vegetation. 

It is held in Europe that the mean heat of the cycle of vegetation 
of the vine must be at least 59 degrees Fahr., and that of the 
summer from 65 degrees to 66 degrees Fahr. It is stated to be 
impossible, for instance, to cultivate the vine upon the temperate 
tablelands of South America, where they enjoy a mean temperature 
of 62.6 degrees to 66.2 degrees Fahr., because these climates are 
characterized by a constancy of temperature, never rising to the 
higher heats necessary to the process of sugar forming, and the 
vine grows, and flourishes, but the grapes never become thoroughly 
ripe. Boussingault shows that, in addition to a summer and 
autumn sufiiciently hot, it is indispensable that at a given period — 
that which follows the appearance of seeds — there should be a 



SUMMER HEAT AMPLE 21 

month the mean temperature of which does not fall below 66.2 
degrees Fahr. As will appear presently, this temperature test 
should not be taken alone, but it will serve as a standard to show 
one feature of the horticultural adaptation of the California 
climate. Boussingault claims the need of 66.2 degrees Fahr. for a 
single month. To be sure to include this, the accompanying table 
gives the average summer temperature at the leading fruit-growing 
centers named. 

Average summer temperature at various California points 

Coast and Coast Deg. Deg. Eleva- Deg. 

Valleys F. Interior Valleys F. Foot-hills tion F. 

Upper Lake 86 Redding 80 Auburn 1,363 75 

Napa 65 Oroville 79 Colfax 2,421 76 

Livermore 69 Marysville 78 Georgetown 2,500 85 

San Jose 67 Sacramento 72 Caliente 1,290 82 

Hollister 66 Merced 79 Fall Brook 700 68 

Santa Barbara 65 Fresno 79 Redlands 1,352 77 

Los Angeles 70 Tulare 78 

San Diego 68 Riverside 73 



These points are selected because the European varieties of 
the grape reach perfection in their vicinity. The excess of heat 
above that required, as is found at all the interior points mentioned 
in the table, results in a very high sugar percentage in the grapes, 
and contributes to the ripening of a second and third crop, as 
will be noted presently. The superior length of the growing season 
in California, of course, is an important agency toward the same 
end. 

DIRECT SUNLIGHT ALSO A REQUISITE 

Count de Gasparin was first to point out that not alone sufficient 
heat, but abundance of continuous sunshine is a requisite of per- 
fectien in fruit growth and ripening, and on his authority may be 
based a claim of exceptional value to the fruit grower in the months 
of cloudless skies which are characteristic of the California summer. 

"The solar rays," says Gasparin, "do not .only produce heat, but 
bring us light, and the effects of the heat and light rays dififer in a 
very pronounced manner. Without light there is no fructification ; 
it is not necessary that the want of light should be complete that 
there should be a failure of fruits. In fact, diffused light alone does 
not suffice for the greater number of plants ; cultivated plants will 
not ripen their seed without the direct rays of sun, and the longer 
they are deprived of it the smaller the quantity which they will 
mature."* 



* Cours d' Agriculture, t. II, p. 96. 



22 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Avg. 

Nov. 9 


for 
mo. 


3.6 


1.9 


1.0 


0.7 


1.3 


2.4 


3.4 


2.5 


2.7 


1.5 


0.5 


0.4 


1.1 


2.0 


2.8 


2.0 


4.2 


3.8 


4.3 


4.3 


3.5 


3.3 


3.8 


4.0 


2.7 


1.5 


0.7 


0.9 


1.4 


2.2 


2.8 


2.0 


5.3 


4.8 


4.3 


3.9 


3.7 


3.8 


3.3 


4.2 


5.2 


4.9 


4.6 


4.6 


4.9 


6.0 


7.6 


5.5 


5.2 


4.9 


5.0 


4.9 


4.7 


4.9 


5.2 


5.0 


5.1 


5.0 


5.0 


4.9 


4.8 


4.7 


5.2 


5.0 


5.1 


4.9 


4.8 


4.9 


4.7 


4.6 


4.9 


4.9 


4.9 


4.6 


4.3 


4.3 


4.9 


5.7 


7.3 


5.3 


4.8 


4.6 


3.8 


4.0 


4.4 


5.6 


7.5 


5.1 


4.1 


5.1 


4.8 


4.9 


5.0 


4.2 


4.5 


4.5 


4.3 


4.7 


4.9 


4.7 


4.3 


3.5 


4.5 


4.5 



Again, referring to the grape, for in connection with the growth 
of this fruit the most careful researches have been made, Humboldt 
wrote : "If to give a potable wine the vine shuns the islands and 
nearly all seacoasts, even those of the West, the cause is not only 
in the moderate heat of summer upon the seashore, but it exists 
more in the difference which there is between direct and diffused 
light; between a clear sky, and one veiled with clouds. "§ 

Normal cloudiness at California and Eastern points 



CALIFORNIA March April 

Red Bluff 4.4 4.2 

Sacramento ..3.9 3.5 

San Francisco ..... 4. 8 4.3 

Fresno ......4.3 2.9 

San Diego.;....;..: ...4.8 4.4 
EASTERN 

Rochester, N. Y 6.6 5.4 

New York, N. Y 5.5 5.3 

Philadelphia, Pa 5.6 5.4 

Baltimore, Md 5.4 5.1 

Cleveland, Ohio 6.4 5.3 

Grand Haven, Mich.. 6. 2 5.4 

Jacksonville, Fla 4.2 4.1 

New Orleans, La 4.8 4.8 



It is noticeable that at the California coast points the average 
cloudiness is almost twice that of the interior valleys, while at the 
East the interior fruit regions of western New York, Ohio, and 
Michigan, have a greater average cloudiness than the Hudson 
River, New Jersey, and Delaware regions near the Atlantic sea- 
board. The average cloudiness in the Eastern fruit regions is 
rather more than twice as great as in the regions of California 
where most fruit is grown. 

This excess of advantage, as it may be termed, in connection 
with the high and protracted heat already mentioned, takes prac- 
tical form in the successful ripening of a second and sometimes a 
third crop of these grapes in a season, from later bloom on younger 
cane growth. This behavior is of more value as a demonstration 
of climatic conditions than otherwise, for it is generally better to 
produce the main crop alone than to undertake later ones. 

Another indication of excess of advantage in the interior valley 
is found in the development of high sugar contents, which is of 
direct value in raisin production. The same tendency, though 
perhaps of less commercial value, is seen in the fact that some 
grapes which yield a good claret wine nearer the coast develop too 
much alcohol when grown in the interior. 



§ Cosmos, t. I, p. 349. 



ADVANTAGE OP DRY AIR 



23 



The advantage of California over Eastern and Southern fruit 
regions in the abundance of clear sunshine is shown in the adjacent 
table. Cloudiness is rated from to 10, three observations daily, 
and the figures in the table are the averages from these daily 
observations for a series of years, compiled from the records of the 
U. S. Weather Bureau. 

RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY TO THE 
GROWTH OF TREES 

There is another important condition of the climate of California 
which is intimately related to those which have been considered, 
and which is to be credited with no small influence in the perfection 
of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of humidity which our 
atmosphere contains.- In California the percentage of humidity is 
high in the winter and low in the summer; in the East the condi- 
tion is just reversed. For this reason summer heat is far more 
oppressive in the East than in California, and for the same reason 
certain serious fungoid diseases which prevail at the East, though 
found here in less injurious degree directly on the coast, are wholly 
unknown in the interior where the air is drier. The dry air also 
favors the access and action of light and heat, for Tyndall says that 
a sheet of vapor acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great 
measure impervious to heat. 

Normal relative humidity at Eastern and California points 



Eastern Stations April 

Jacksonville, Fla 72.3 

Philadelphia, Pa 63.4 

Rochester, N. Y 67.8 

Grand Haven, Mich. . .70.9 

St. Louis, Mo 63.7 

New Orleans, La 76.0 

Galveston, Tex 84.6 

California Stations 

Los Angeles 73.1 

Fresno 59.3 

Sacramento 67.6 

Red BlufE 61.9 



It is not necessary, then, that there should be clouds to lessen 
the chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do 
clouds intercept sunshine, but water vapor in the air — when to the 
eye the sun is bright as ever — can absorb a large quantity of the 
effective sun rays, and so retard fruit ripening. Hence an appar- 
ently sunny country which has much invisible water vapor in the 
air, may prove defective in fruit-ripening qualities. 















A^ 


vs- for 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


8 mo. 


73.0 


77.6 


78.6 


80.9 


82.9 


79.8 


82.2 


78.3 


68.9 


69.2 


68.6 


71.2 


75.2 


70.7 


73.6 


70.1 


68.6 


69.1 


67.3 


70.7 


75.2 


75.6 


76.2 


71.3 


71.4 


73.7 


69.0 


73.1 


75.0 


75.7 


79.1 


73.5 


67.8 


68.8 


66.3 


67.3 


70.2 


65.9 


71.1 


67.6 


74.2 


78.1 


78.3 


78.8 


77.3 


74.0 


79.4 


78.0 


78.0 


79.3 


77.4 


78.1 


77.2 


75.6 


80.4 


78.5 


75.2 


73.0 


75.4 


76.2 


72.9 


74.3 


66.6 


73.3 


52.7 


42.4 


34.7 


34.7 


43.6 


55.1 


64.1 


48.3 


67.6 


66.1 


59.8 


59.8 


59.0 


62.4 


66.8 


63.6 


56.8 


43.7 


35.6 


35.3 


43.6 


51.6 


60.7 


48.8 



24 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



It is true that air free from humidity allows rapid escape of 
heat by radiation as well as free access of it, and in dry air frost 
is more severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit growth, from 
June to October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by 
other natural agencies. In the early spring and late autumn the 
humidity percentage rises again and checks radiation just at the 
time of the year when it is most desirable to have it checked. 

The acccompanying table, compiled from the records of the 
United States Weather Bureau, shows the prevailing relative 
humidity in the East and South and in California. 

THE THREE POINTS COMBINED 

The three great advantages of the California climate — abundant 
heat, continuous sunshine, and dry air — taken in connection with 
the fitness of the soil and the great length of the growing season, 
insure the characteristic excellence of California fruit, and the early 
maturity, great growth, and abundant fruitage of our trees and 
vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rainless summer also min- 
ister directly to the curing of fruits in the open air. All things 
considered, it is doubtful whether any area in the world excels 
California in possession of natural adaptation to fruit production 
and preservation. 

A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFORNIA'S CLIMATIC 

ENDOWMENT 

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per- 
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern 
certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which may 
be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Cali- 
fornian. Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length of the 
growing season. 

Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The 
bloom may appear in February, followed by the grand foliage 
expanding to a leaf-size, marvelous to one unused to such peach 
leaves. The shoots of new growth rush out with vigor promised 
by such a leaf, and yet the fruit below expands as though it would 
burst its skin in rapid enlargement — and still it grows. The new 
shoot, apparently weary of its several feet of extension, stops for 
a rest, and then, reviving, starts out its laterals — while still below 
the peach is growing. The laterals push out a foot or more — all 
carrying large, fresh leaves. While these are in full vigor, the fruit 
ripens, after having a full year's joint work of root and foliage, if 
it is a late variety. Is it any wonder is weighs a pound? But still 
the tree is active. It forms its terminal buds, and then all along 
the new main shoots and their laterals are formed the leaf and 



IMPORTANCE OF CLEAR SUNLIGHT 



25 



blossom buds for the following year. Still the foliage holds green 
and active, if the moisture below be adequate, and the leaves seem 
loth to fall in the ninth month from the time of blooming. Is it 
any wonder California peaches are large and the trees require 
pruning and thinning to enable them to carry the weight produced 
in such a season of growth? And what has been said of the peach 
is true of other trees, according to their nature and habits. The 
trees themselves are more eloquent of California's conditions for 
growth than descriptions or statistical tables can be made. 

But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissable, 
is a factor as well as their duration. The air, free, not alone from 
clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor which weakens 
sunshine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid climate, has a 
clearness and brilliance from its aridity which makes each day of 
the long, growing season more than a day in other climates, and 
thus adds to the calendar length of the growing season. The 
surplus light and heat also act directly in the chemistry which 
proceeds in the tissues of the plant, and we have not only size, 
but quality, color, aroma — everything which makes the perfect fruit 
precious and beautiful beyond words. 

It is true that for commercial purposes it is not possible to 
allow this process to go too far, for its later effects are higher 
sweetness, accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit can not 
endure transportation. But go to the tree to apply the only test 
which can fairly be put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration of 
the service of clear, unobstructed sunshine through an adequate 
period is complete. But if this can not be done, place the judgment 
upon the mature peach carefully sun-dried and intelligently cooked, 
or upon the ripe peach skilfully canned, and the distinctive adapta- 
tions of California for fruit production will display themselves. 

But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of fruit 
than intensity and duration of light and heat. Without adequate 
moisture in the soil, the air which we have credited with such 
benign power in carrying heat and light for perfection of fruit 
would transmit the same as agencies for the destruction of the tree 
which bears it. If this moisture comes from rainfall, it descends 
at the time of the year when the tree is least active, consequently 
is least retarded by a clouded sky and moisture-laden air, and least 
affected by atmospheric disturbances. Strong storm winds find 
the tree with reefed sails, and able to endure pressure which would 
tear it to pieces if they came upon its grand spread of foliage on 
branches heavy with fruit. It is a priceless horticultural endow- 
ment that no tornado can pierce our protecting mountain-barriers, 
and that it is exceedingly rare that our local winds disturb the 
confident swaying of the branches and leaf movement beyond the 
activity which ministers to the sap flow. And if the adequate 



26 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



moisture is not from rainstorm, but by irrigation, the same facts 
remain, for the water reaches the tree without interrupting its 
aerial activity. Temperature is maintained, light is unobstructed, 
and the tree is refreshed with moisture without the chill and dark- 
ness which favor fungoid parasites. Of all the ways by which 
moisture could come to soils supporting fruit tree or vine, the 
natural by its time, and the artificial by its method, endow Cali- 
fornia with the best. 

The characteristics of the California climate which have been 
especially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to fruit 
culture when they exist to excessive degree, as in some interior or 
continental climates. Local conditions of altitude, distance from 
the sea, and exposure to the sweep of arctic winds, induce sudden 
and great weather changes which are serious in their effects. 
Excessively low percentage of atmospheric humidity, in connection 
with desiccating wind, often produce greater evaporation from the 
leaves than the roots can supply. Excessively dry air admits a 
parching sun heat at one time, and at another facilitates radiation 
of heat, until the rapid decline in temperature makes killing frosts 
frequent. It is evident that California has these agencies constantly 
held in check by her insular situation and protecting environment, 
and owes her wonderful adaptation to growth of tree and perfec- 
tion of fruit not more to the possession of certain conditions than 
to the fact of their existence in moderation. 



CHAPTER III 

THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA 

The favoring characteristics of the California climates, which 
have been described, find their fitting complement in the adaptation 
of the California soils to the perfect development of fruit-bearing 
tree and vine. In their wonderful variety and consequent great 
range of special adaptations within narrow limits of area, our soils 
also resemble our climates. As a man may sometimes find within 
the boundaries of an ordinary-sized farm such a difference of 
atmospheric conditions that the same fruit will thrive in one spot 
and not in another, so he may find dififerences in soil which will 
tend to produce the same results. For this reason the precise spot 
in which to plant any given fruit must be chosen with regard to 
both soil and exposure. In the chapters devoted to the several 
fruits, there will be an attempt made to describe the soil require- 
ments of each, so that the inexperienced planter may not err 
seriously in choosing the location for each kind of fruit he desires 
to grow. While this is true, it will also appear in these special 
chapters that the choice of roots upon which to bud or graft gives 
the planter a certain latitude and independence. This is of greatest 
value in the planting of home orchards, or orchards for local 
markets, in regions where the soil is not what is usually preferred 
for fruit production. With proper choice of stocks and wisdom and 
diligence in cultivation, one need hardly despair of growing good 
fruit on soil which will support any laudable plant growth. And 
yet in commercial orcharding, the secret of which is producing 
most abundantly and cheaply, too great attention can not be paid 
to choice of specially adapted soils. 

It is an interesting fact that more complete and exact knowledge 
exists of the soils of California than of any other State of the 
Union, and for this knowledge the public is indebted to E. W. 
Hilgard, Professor Emeritus of Agriculture, and Director of the 
Agricultural Experiment Stations of the University of California 
from 1875 to 1905. For the last thirty-three years he has given 
all the time he could spare from many other and pressing duties, 
to the examination, and, when needed, the analysis, of represen- 
tative soil specimens, and to practical expositions of their nature, 
adaptations, and requirements in the event of exhaustion from too 
long cropping, and he has just published a general treatise entitled, 
"Soils : Their Formation, Properties, Composition and Relations 
to Climate and Plant Growth in the Humid and Arid Regions," 

27 



2g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

which includes the results of his long study of California soils and 
climates. It is the purpose of the writer to set forth a few general 
characters of California fruit soils, with notes of their local 
occurrence, referring the reader to Prof. Hilgard's treatise for fuller 
exposition. 

Very extensive studies of California soils have been recently 
made under the direction of Dr. Milton Whitney, Chief of the 
Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
and a new classification and nomenclature of them, from his points 
of view, with extended maps of their occurrence, are to be found in 
the special reports of the Bureau. 

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS 

One of the most interesting and important recent achievements 
in soil investigation consists in demonstrating distinctive differ- 
ences between soils formed under arid and under humid climatic 
conditions. In the development of this subject certain distinctive 
characters of California soils clearly appear, and they are of direct 
relation to the thrift, productiveness, treatment and longevity of 
fruit trees. These characters are : (a) lightness and consequent 
permeability and ease of cultivation; (b) depth, admitting excep- 
tional root extension and penetration; and (c) richness, containing 
some kinds of plant food in considerably greater amounts than are 
found in the soils of humid regions. These characteristics, as 
demonstrated by Prof. Hilgard, may be outlined in this way with 
special reference to their relations to fruit growing. 

Lightness. — California soils predominantly exhibit the sandy, 
silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid conditions, 
save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geological 
epochs, as well as slack-water deposits of the present epoch, all of 
which are substantially independent of climate. While "sand" in 
the humid regions means virtually quartz grains only, in the arid 
country it means very largely grains and powder of the other soil- 
forming minerals as well. While, therefore, in the humid region, 
sandy land as a rule means poor land, in the arid, on the contrary, 
sandy lands are at least as desirable as heavier ones, both on the 
score of high productiveness, durability, and ease of cultivation, 
together with ready resistance to drouth. 

Depth. — Another point of great importance is that the difference 
between soil and subsoil, which is so striking and important in 
regions of abundant rainfall, is largely obliterated in arid climates. 
Very commonly hardly, a perceptible change of tint or texture is 
found for depths of several feet; and what is more important, 
material from such depths, when thrown on the surface oftentimes 
subserves the agricultural uses of a soil nearly or quite as well 



CALIFORNIA SOIL CHARACTERS 



29 



as the original surface soil. The unconcern with which irrigators 
proceed to level or otherwise grade their land, even though this 
may involve covering up large areas of surface soil with subsoil 
from several feet depth; the rapidity with which the red loam of 
the placer mines of the Sierra Nevada foot-hills is re-covered with 
the natural forest growth of the region, etc., are examples familiar 
to the residents but surprising to newcomers, who are accustomed 
to dread the upturning of the subsoil as likely to deprive them of 
remunerative crops for several years, until the "raw" subsoil has 
had time to be "vitalized" by the fallowing effect of the atmos- 
phere, and to acquire the needful amount of humus or vegetable 
mold. Thus the surface soil, which in the humid regions supplies 
the bulk of the nourishment, becomes here of minor importance, 
serving chiefly as a mulch to prevent waste of moisture ; while 
the active process of nutrition occurs in the deeper portion of the 
soil stratum, whose composition, as well as condition of disinte- 
gration and aeration, is substantially the same as above. The 
second foot is rarely found to differ materially from the first, even 
as to humus content; for the latter, being almost exclusively 
derived from the humification of roots, the leaves and herbage on 
the surface being mostly oxidized away under the intense heat of 
summer; it not uncommonly happens in very porous soils that the 
first six inches of surface soil are poorer in humus than the second 
foot. 

Practical Results of Lightness and Depth. — The "lightness" 
and perviousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region permit 
of the penetration of roots to depth which in the humid region are 
inaccessible to them on account of the dense subsoils, which 
prevent the needful access of air. This deep penetration enables 
even annual plants to avail themselves directly of the stores of 
moisture in the substrata, at depths which in the humid region are 
scarcely reached save by the tap-roots of some perennials and 
trees ; while the latter themselves reach depths never approached 
by them in the region of summer rains. Professor Hilgard has 
personally found the ends of the roots of grape-vines at a depth 
of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam ; and from ten to 
fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root system of fruit 
trees. Such depth of rooting, when conservation of moisture is 
secured by proper surface cultivation, enables deciduous fruit trees 
to grow thriftily and bear fine fruit through six months of drouth 
while as many weeks of drouth may bring distress and loss of 
fruit to surface-rooting trees on the shallow soils of the humid 
region. 

Richness. — The foregoing conditions are rendered the more sig- 
nificant and effective through the third characteristic of soils 
formed in arid climates. The average aggregate amounts of plant- 



30 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



food ingredients are markedly greater in the arid than in the humid 
soils, wherever their derivation is at all generalized. Among the 
agriculturally important ingredients contained in larger average 
amounts in the arid soils than in the humid, lime stands foremost; 
its percentage in soils not derived from calcareous formations being 
from twelve to fourteen times greater in the arid than in the humid 
soils. Magnesia follows lime in this respect, but the average differ- 
ence is only about half as great. The average content of potash 
in the arid soils exceeds that in the humid in about the proportion 
of one to three or four. But no such constant difference exists in 
respect to phosphoric acid. As regards humus, and the nitrogen 
of which it is the carrier and reservoir, its amount is usually con- 
siderably less than in the humid soils ; but the total nitrogen per- 
centage does not differ widely, because the humus of arid soils 
contains, on the average, from three to five times as much nitrogen 
as is found in the humus of humid soils, and therefore, the supply 
of soil nitrogen is very nearly the same in both regions, while 
from several causes, the humus-nitrogen of arid soils is more 
available to plants. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS 

Any attempt to classify the soils of California upon scientific 
lines or even to describe them in their wonderful variety, according 
to their geographical occurrence, would lead beyond the limitations 
of a treatise upon the practice of fruit growing. Rather let an 
attempt be made to designate certain grades of soil with brief 
characterization of their leading features as they are related to the 
growth of fruits. By such a course it may be made to appear that 
though the soils of the State are predominantly light, deep and rich 
and thus eminently fitted for fruit growing, there are many degrees 
in the possession of these characters or any of them, in local soils, 
and upon this individual manifestation they rate all the way from 
perfection to defectiveness. Let a classification proceed then upon 
a descending scale. 

Light, Deep Loams. — Admixture of clay with enough coarse 
materials to secure permeability to air and water, ease in cultiva- 
tion, deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water, 
produces soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit trees 
and vines. These soils are popularly known as loams. They are 
designated as sandy loams, medium loams and clay loams, accord- 
ing to the proportion of clay commingled with the sand or coarse 
materials. 

Professor Hilgard has devised the following nomenclature of 
soils based upon their content of clay : Sandy soils, less than 5 
per cent of clay; sandy loams, from 5 to 10 per cent; ordinary or 



FINE, DEEP LOAMS 



31 



medium loams, from 10 to 15 per cent; clay loams, from 15 to 20 
per cent ; clay soils, from 20 to 50 per cent of clay. 

The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock 
particles in various degrees of disintegration. The fine materials 
are clay and rock powder, commonly designated as fine silt. Loam 
soils may result from deposits by flowing water or many consist 
of debris but little removed from local rock disintegration. They 
include a wide variety of materials but agree in the possession of 
striking adaptability to fruit culture. Some of the leading instances 
of such soils may be cited. 

Loams of the Valley Plains. — On the east side of the Sacra- 
mento Valley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river's 
course come in from the foot-hills, forming a gently undulating 
plain with a fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, sometimes 
right up to the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the east side 
have a reddish tinge, showing the admixture of the red foot-hill 
soil and demonstrating, by the way, that all these lands are well 
drained. In cuts ten to twelve feet deep, made by the sloughs, the 
reddish plains loam is seen to reach from six to ten feet depth, 
being then underlaid by gravelly substrata. The width of this 
class of profusely fertile valley land, east and west, varies consid- 
erably, according to the meanderings of the rivers. Away from the 
water courses, the higher lands of the valleys are largely red or 
yellow loams, sometimes clayey and difficult of cultivation unless 
taken just in the right condition, sometimes gravelly and apt to 
dry out unless the natural water supply is supplemented by irriga- 
tion, but mostly a free-working, fairly retentive, light loam, very 
satisfactory for some kinds of fruit. 

The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much 
greater admixture of sand than those of the Sacramento Valley; 
there is also a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into 
upland or "bench" lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper. 

Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and Tulare 
counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irrigation has 
been made during the last few years. Though its summer aspect 
is most forbidding and almost desert-like in lack of vegetation, 
the application of water has shown exceptional quickness of 
growth, early bearing, and lavish productiveness of tree and vine. 
These plains loams vary in appearance, and are from this fact 
locally named, "reddish loam," "white ash," and "sand hill." All 
are distinctly calcareous. Even in the case of the latter, which is 
the lightest and made of almost 90 per cent of inert sand, it is so 
deep and has its plant food in such highly available condition that 
it is producing very large crops of fruits where there is no rise of 
the bottom water to prevent root penetration. In the foot-hills 
of the Sierra Nevada there are some loose loams of light color 



32 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

resulting from the decomposition of granite, but they are as a rule 
inferior to the red foot-hill soils, which are more clayey, and will 
be mentioned among the clay loams later. 

The soils prevailing in the valley of southern California, from 
Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at its opening out toward the 
sea, consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points on the 
slopes forms the soils exclusively, but everywhere constitutes a 
prominent ingredient of the valley and mesa lands. These mesa 
lands are conspicuous for their orange-red tint, and the red sandy 
loam of which they are composed, to depths varying from ten to 
as much as eighty feet, is evidently the choice soil for orange 
culture. It is manifest that at some remote epoch it filled the 
entire valley. Of the middle portion much has been washed away, 
but islands of it form red-land tracts of greater or less extent all 
over the region, traversed by and more or less commingled with, 
the granitic wash from the valleys and canyons of the Sierra 
Madre. The latter frequently consists largely of gravel, and were 
it not for the luxuriant natural vegetation borne by these gravel 
beds, few would have thought of devoting them to the costly 
experiment of orange planting, which, nevertheless, has proved 
eminently successful even on these unpromising-looking masses 
of debris. In the upper valley (San Bernardino Valley proper) the 
red loam is conspicuous, and gives its name to the flourishing city 
and citrus district of Redlands, on the terminal slope ; but the 
heavy flow of water from the upper canyons, notably from that 
of the Santa Ana River, has scoured it out of the valley itself, and 
left there, at least on the northern portion, gray and blackish 
granitic loams of great depth and productiveness, underlaid, and 
therefore underdrained, by the enormous gravel beds that hold the 
artesian water of this favored region. 

The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller Southern 
California valleys as well, and are similar in character, as they are 
derived from similar geological formations. 

Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and not 
in bluffs, there are, as in Los Angeles and Orange counties, coast 
flats several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored sandy 
loam, glistening with scales of mica, and more or less affected 
with alkali in the lower portions. Similar soils are found in tracts 
of greater or less extent up the coast as far as Santa Barbara at 
least. As a rule, these seashore lands are very productive, but 
fruits for them must be chosen with reference to their low level 
and exposure to coast influences. 

The light loams of the so-called desert region of Southern Cali- 
fornia are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the best 
soils of the great valley, which it greatly resembles, save in the 
scarcity of humus, or vegetable matter. Only a detailed survey, 
however, can determine the tracts having an arable soil, as against 



VALLEY ALLUVIAL LOAMS 



33 



those overrun by arid sand. The soil of the Colorado River bottom 
is highly productive, easily worked, being quite light. It is a highly 
calcareous soil, and now, as the water of the Colorado River 
has been made available for irrigation, is yielding rich returns for 
cultivation. 

The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have mostly 
gray, light, and silty, rather than sandy soils, quite similar in 
appearance from Ventura to Humboldt county, though differing 
considerably in composition, those of the southern region being 
more calcareous, and apparently richer in phosphoric acid ; as the 
coast region consists for the most part of low ranges with inter- 
vening valleys, the valleys are, as a rule, small, though a few show 
considerable area. In such a country the soil surface shows wide 
diversity within smaller areas than on the vast stretches of the 
great interior valley; consequently, so far as soil goes, the coast 
farms are often suited to a wider range of fruits than the interior 
valley farms of similar size. 

ALLUVIAL OR SEDIMENTARY LOAMS 
These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings 
by Americans as par excellence the fruit soils of the great valley 
of central and northern California. They occur along the courses 
of existing streams, and extend back to variable distances, until 
they merge into the valley loams, or adobes. ■ These deposits are 
considerably higher than the present beds of the streams, and are 
sometimes described as "next to river bottom." They consist of 
fine alluvium, with seldom any admixture of coarse materials. 
These river soils are usually very deep and they are naturally well 
drained. 

These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular courses; 
they are of greater or less width according to the drainage area 
whence they have come. They vary also in depth, and taper down 
on either side to the level of the red loam or adobe upon which 
they have been deposited. Such strips are first chosen by the fruit 
planters of the district in which they occur. In the valleys of 
the rivers crossing the eastern side of the San Joaquin Valley, 
there are, bordering the streams as well as Tulare Lake, consid- 
erable areas of brown to blackish loam varying from heavy to light, 
but for the most part easily tilled and exceedingly rich. Consid- 
erable fruit has been grown for years on these situations, and some 
kinds do well on these bottoms which do not show adaptation 
to the plains. Some even of the higher lying portions of these 
"black lands" support thrifty orchards without irrigation. The 
wider stretches of alluvial soils in the upper part of the valley, as 
in the Mussel Slough country and the Visalia region, for instance, 
are notably well adapted to fruit growing. The occasional intru- 
sion of alkali, which must be carefully avoided, is the chief obstacle 



34 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

to the general approval of these alluvial lands for fruit purposes. 

•Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys con- 
sisting of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some 
places reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable 
change in character. Such soils have proved very fertile and 
durable. 

The rich river bottom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers 
and sloughs of the valley, has usually a dark, rich, and miost soil, 
easily tilled and not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely 
used for the growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable 
areas have been planted with fruit trees, especially with pears, 
which do not suffer from submergence of their roots for consid- 
erable time. 

In the coast valleys of the State there are also very extensive 
areas of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit production, 
as well as upland loams formed in place by the disintegration of 
local rock formations. The famous fruit region extending from 
Oakland southward nearly one hundred miles, including the Ala- 
meda and Santa Clara Valleys, has very large areas of alluvial soil, 
ranging from deep, rich blackish loams used for vegetables and 
small fruits, to lighter loams resulting from intermixture of sedi- 
ment brought by streams from adjacent hillsides with the clay of 
the valley bottom. It is to these deep, rich alluvial deposits that 
the region owes its great reputation in fruit lines, 

CLAY LOAMS 

Or loams containing sufficient clay to render them somewhat 
heavy and tenacious, there is also a great variety in California. 
Their suitability for different fruits depends upon selection of roots 
adapted to their character and upon the depth and degree of reten- 
tiveness of the soils themselves. They are more difficult of tillage 
than the free loams, but offer some compensation therefor in their 
richness and durability. 

Clay Loams of the Foot-hills and Valley Border. — The soils of 
the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its course along the 
great valley, vary from a moderately clayey loam to a heavy, though 
not uncommonly gravelly, often orange-red clay. This character 
seems to be sensibly the same, whether the soil be derived from 
the decomposition of the ancient slate bed-rock or directly from 
the dark-colored granites, thus creating a presumption that the two 
rocks are closely related. The soils are highly charged with iron 
to the extent of from seven to over twelve per cent, which being 
finely divided, imparts to them the intense orange-red tint. The 
soils of the foot-hills agree with the soils of the valley in having a 
good percentage of lime, while the supply of potash and phos- 
phates, as well as of organic matter, is smaller, and sometimes low, 



USES OP HEAVY LOAMS 



35 



though never apparently inadequate for present productiveness, in 
the presence of so much lime. 

Along the base of the foot-hills of the Sierra there is in Fresno, 
Tulare, and part of Kern county, a narrow belt, irregular in width, 
of partly red and partly black clay or adobe, so highly calcareous 
as to break up, when dry, into small fragments, producing a con- 
dition that has received the name "dry bog." It is upon this that 
the citrus orchards of the Porterville district are chiefly grown. A 
white, calcareous marl sometimes occurs beneath this soil at vary- 
ing depths, producing chlorosis or yellowing of citrus leaves when 
reached by the roots. Westward of this "dry bog" land there is a 
belt of reddish or brown loam soils, corresponding to those simi- 
larly located in the Sacramento Valley, but generally more clayey, 
and hence frequently designated as adobe by contrast with the 
very sandy soils of the valley at large, although properly they 
should be classed simply as clayey loams. This belt is eight to ten 
miles wide in middle Tulare county and narrows to the north and 
south. Here these lands have a gentle slope of ten to twenty feet 
per mile from the base of the foot-hills, and appear to be underlaid 
at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing gravel. The 
soil is a reddish, more or less sandy, loam, changing little in its 
aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is shown by the 
products of the Lindsay region. 

CLAY SOILS 

Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been employed 
in horticulture. There is a great difference in the character of 
what is known as adobe in different localities. Its color varies, as 
the popular terms "black waxy," "black," "brown," and "gray" 
adobe indicate. Its physical condition and chemical composition 
also vary greatly. The black adobe of the east side of the Sacra- 
mento Valley is easily tilled as compared with the gray adobe 
on the west side, which is very refractory and often largely impreg- 
nated with alkali. To render soil of adobe character useful for 
fruit growing, this tendency to dry out and crack, thus allowing 
evaporation from below as well as from the surface, must be over- 
come. The discussion of this point belongs to the chapter on 
cultivation. Adobe soils are, as a rule, rich and durable and there- 
fore promise long fruitfulness to trees and vines with roots adapted 
to heavy soils, but difficulty of cultivation, excessive retention of 
water, and other evils are always present. Some suggestions on 
the treatment of such soils will be given in the chapter on 
fertilization. 



* This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the 
construction of adobe houses. Agriculturally, it means "a heavy clay soil," such as 
could not be used in building. 



3g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



DEFECTIVE SOILS 

Although California soils are predominantly of the depth, light- 
ness and richness best suited to the growth and bearing of fruit 
trees and vines, it should always be borne in mind that there are 
marked exceptions, and failure to observe this fact has resulted in 
considerable disappointment and loss. There is in California much 
land which is bad from a horticultural point of view and it is apt 
to occur even in the vicinity of lands of the highest excellence. It 
is, therefore, necessary to advise that the closest examination be 
made before investment be made in the planting of fruits. 

Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in Cali- 
fornia soils and considerable areas of land sterile through excess 
of saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by the local 
reputation of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains to make 
inquiry. It is rather the more obscure, subsoil conditions which 
lead to loss or failure, and they may be unknown even to men who 
have owned or farmed the land for years for ordinary field crops. 
These defects are, in the main, three : 

Hard-pan. — Good loams may be underlaid near the surface by 
hard-pan or by layers of heavy clay. These prevent root penetra- 
tion; they also limit moisture reception to the shallow surface 
layer, which is apt to become water-logged for lack of drainage 
during the rainy season or by excessive irrigation, and to quickly 
lose its moisture by surface evaporation in the dry season, with 
no compensation from the tight layer below. In such a situation, 
then, the plant may suffer severely from excess of water at one 
time of the year and lack of it at another. Such lands may serve 
well for some of the small fruits, but not for trees or vines. Under 
certain circumstances the defects of these soils may be corrected, 
as will be suggested in the chapter on preparing lands for planting. 

Leachy Sub-soils. — Good loams are also occasionally underlaid 
by layers of coarse sand or gravel, through which water flows away 
beyond the reach of roots which will only make measured progress 
through such materials. Trees in such situations are apt to come 
into distress in the dry season and can only be comforted by 
frequency and volume of irrigation and fertilization, which may 
be out of proportion to the returns they are able to make. 

Rise of Ground Water. — Good fruit lands are also occasionally 
rendered defective by the rise of the ground water toward the sur- 
face so that only a shallow layer is left for root extension — the evil 
being aggravated by the fact that a temporary fall of the ground 
water induces deeper rooting, which a subsequent rise of the water 
destroys, and decay of the roots ensues. This trouble has occurred 
over large areas where excessive irrigation, or the course of leaky 



TO DISCOVER SOIL, DEFECTS 37 

ditches, on higher lands, has filled the lower level to such an extent 
that there is actual outcropping of swamps in the swales. The 
cure for these conditions is, obviously, drainage, which it is not 
always possible to secure at a warranted outlay. 

Alkali. — Connected with this rise of the ground water the alkali 
evil may intrude. But little trouble arises from this cause in the 
high-lying, sandy tracts, where irrigation or the natural rainfall 
carries the soluble salts annually into the country drainage ; but in 
the low-lying and less pervious soils of swales and valley troughs, 
which are at the same time intrinsically the richest in available 
mineral plant food, the accumulation frequently causes consid- 
erable trouble, and difficulty. 

Prospecting for Soil Defects. — For subterranean prospecting. 
Professor Hilgard commends a steel rod not less than a quarter 
of an inch in diameter (round or square, preferably the latter), well 
pointed at one end, and provided at the other with a stout iron 
ring for the reception of a stout cross-handle, such as is used for 
post-hole augers. With such a prod, or sounding rod, not less than 
five feet in length, the exploration of the subsoil for hard-pan or 
dense clay layers becomes a matter of a few minutes. It is easy 
also to detect thus the presence of underlying layers of quicksand, 
gravel, or other loose materials through which irrigation water 
would waste, or which would prevent the rise of bottom water 
within the reach of plant roots, by the large interspaces between 
their grains. Any remaining doubts as to the nature of such under- 
lying materials at particular points can then quickly by solved by 
the use of a post-hole auger or by digging, for thorough inspection 
of each foot of depth which may be found desirable. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE WILD FRUITS OF CALIFORNIA 

The wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the most 
part peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or local 
species of more widely distributed genera. Very few are identical 
with the wild fruits common to great areas of the continent. For 
this reason our wild fruits constitute a very interesting subject 
for botanical study, and they are now, perhaps, more widely than 
ever before, attracting the attention of botanical pomologists. 
Viewed from the standpoint of practical pomology or horticulture, 
our wild fruits can not be claimed, on the whole, to have attained 
any very great importance. 

A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated 
their culinary or household value, and are locally sought for, but 
none have any notable commercial value. This may be due to 
the fact that some of our most delicious wild fruits are very exact- 
ing in their choice of conditions, and can not be moved far, even 
within the limits of our own State, and presumably would not take 
kindly to longer journeys. 

Another reason why we have made little of our own wild 
species is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior 
growth of the best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the world. 
Therefore, we have little occasion for recourse to the improvement 
of local wild fruits, because of superior hardiness and adaptation^ 
as has been done in other parts of the country. Neither fruit 
planters nor propagators have given any special attention to the 
wild growths, either for fruit or for stocks, although a beginning 
has been made in both these directions, which may ultimately attain 
importance. The horticulture of California wild fruits is a thing 
of the future. 

The distribution of our wild fruits is determined by limitations 
of areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way it may 
be said that fruits are most abundant in foot-hill and mountain 
regions, and that our great valleys have always been practically 
destitute of them, except along stream borders. These fruits are 
most abundant in the northern portion of the State, but some exist 
throughout the State, usually thriving at higher elevations as they 
proceed southward. 

Oregon Crabapple (Pirus rivularis).— This fruit, though more 
abundant in the more northerly regions of the coast, as its name 
indicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It 
chooses a moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five feet 
high, shows white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit, about 

39 



40 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



half an inch long. The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit is eaten 
by the Indians, and was sometimes used for jelly-making by early 
settlers. 

Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata). — This must be regarded as 
one of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the 
plum varieties of all the world have been introduced, residents in 
some of the Sierra regions, where an excellent variety (Kelloggii) 
abounds, prefer it to the cultivated fruit, both for eating and pre- 
serving and jelly-making. The typical species is widely distributed 
over the mountainous regions of the State, and is a low shrub with 
white bloom and fruit three-quarters of an inch long, of red color 
and inferior pulp. The better variety has a narrower range, forms 
a larger shrub, and bears a yellow fruit, larger and better than the 
typical species. Some attempts have been made to improve this 
variety by cultivation and selection of seedlings, and the results 
are promising, as fruit has been shown at our fairs notably better 
than the wild gatherings. The roots have also been used to some 
extent as stocks, but seem to possess no marked advantage. The 
late Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, reported that grafting an 
improved plum on the wild stock seems to cause the root to grow 
to much greater size than natural to it. Observation upon grafted 
and non-grafted seedlings in the same nursery row convinced him 
of this behavior. Other experimenters have condemned the stock 
because of dwarfing and suckering. In early days the wild plums 
in the mining regions of the mountains were largely made use of 
and are highly praised by pioneers. 

Oso Berry (Nuttallia cerasiformis). — This fruit is sometimes 
called the "California false plum." It has a plum-like form, one- 
half inch long, and is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though 
not disagreeable to bicds and animals, which feed upon it. The 
white bloom of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock, 
the plum varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed. 

Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.). — Quite a group of wild fruits come 
under this generic grouping, and they have marked and widely 
different characteristics. The western Choke-cherry {Prunus 
dcmissa) closely resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its 
round, red, or dark purple fruit on a raceme. It is used for marma- 
lade by housewives in the mountain districts. This species has 
proved of some utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting 
in early days when better cherry stock was not available. Another 
species, Islay {Prunus ilicifoUa), has evergreen foliage, and is a 
useful hedge plant. 

Of species bearing fruit in umbels, or true cherry style, we have 
the Bitter Cherry {Prunus emarginata), which makes a handsome 
tree, sometimes thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite 



WILD FRUITS OP CALIFORNIA 4.]^ 

bitter and astringent. The bush form bearing bright red fruit 
intensely bitter, is the variety CaHfornica. 

California Grape (Vitis Calif ornica). — Along our streams the 
native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit 
resembling the "frost grape" of the East. The vine frequently 
covers and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its 
foliage. Some variation is reported in the species, but it is possible 
that some of the better kinds are seedlings from some imported 
species, bird planted. The species has attained something of a 
reputation as a phyloxera-resisting root for grafting, but it has 
proved exacting in its choice of soils and situations, and otherwise 
not desirable, and some Eastern species are now relied upon for 
this service. 

Elderberry (Sambucus glauca). — The elderberry makes a fine 
tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, and 
with a trunk a foot and a half in diameter. The fruit is borne in 
large quantities and is used to some extent for preserves and pastry. 

Raspberries (Rubus sp.). — In the mountains of the eastern part 
of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant flavor, 
which is called "thimbleberry" (Rubus parviHorus.) It seems to 
have an advantage over a variety (velutinus) of the same species 
which is found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit. Another 
raspberry, which is found in all hilly and mountainous regions, 
both on the coast and in the interior is Rubus leucodermis. It 
resembles the black-cap raspberry of the Atlantic slope, except that 
it has yellowish-red fruit. This fruit is quite largely gathered for 
domestic uses, and some efforts have been made to cultivate the 
plants. 

Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis). — The beauty, size, and 
delicious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who have 
enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and farther 
northward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten feet high, 
and it delights in woods and shady banks of streams. The praise 
of all who know the fruit has led to frequent attempts to mtroduce 
the plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but such efforts 
have thus far uniformly failed. 

Wild Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius). — This fruit should perhaps 
be called a "dewberry," as it has a trailing, or, at most, but partially 
raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet. The plant 
occurs abundantly on banks of streams and other sufficiently moist 
locations, both in the coast and interior regions of the State. 
Around the margin of Humboldt Bay, on land cleared by fire or 
axe, blackberries spring up abundantly on the denuded land. Tons 
of the fruit are said to remain after the local housewives have done 
their utmost in preserving and jelly-making. In the lowland region 



42 CALiFORNlA PRtriTS: ttOW TO GRoW TttEM 

ground Stockton considerable quantities are sometimes gathered 
for sale. The fruit, which has been held in high repute ever since 
pioneer days, is oblong, black, and sweet. The species is variable, 
and the anomaly, a white blackberry, has been reported from Del 
Norte county. The native wild blackberry is one of the parents 
of the Loganberry and of some of Mr. Burbank's hybrids which 
are widely grown. 

Wild Strawberries (Fragaria sp.). — We have in California two 
Eastern species : Fragaria vesca and F. Virginiana. Thus far these 
have only been reported from localities in the Sierra mountain 
region. Another, the sand strawberry, has been found identical 
with a South American species, Chilensis, and it occurs along the 
coast, where the fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant 
enough to gather in quantity. A fourth species, wood strawberry, 
is local, and is named Californica. It bears a small round fruit and 
is partial to the coast region. Recently some cultural attention 
has been given to the wild strawberries, and varieties worthy of 
propagation have been reported by growers resident in the Sierra 
region. Mr. Albert F. Etter of Ettersburg, Humboldt county, has 
secured notable results in crossing with the wild strawberry, as will 
be noted in the chapter on that fruit. 

Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.). — Some of our 
currant species are achieving quite a reputation abroad as orna- 
mental shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Ribcs 
tenuiHoruni is, however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for jellies, 
etc., by dwellers in its region, which is the mountain region of the 
extreme north of the State. We also have a species (Bracteosum) 
which has something of the black currant flavor and a fair-sized 
fruit, black with whitish bloom, and very sweet. 

There are also several species oi Ribes which are classed with 
the gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of these 
{Ribes divaricatum) is peculiar to this coast; another (Ribes 
oxyacanthoides) occurs at an elevation in the Sierra Nevada and 
thence extends eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains. The berries 
are small to medium, of pleasant flavor, and well armed with spines. 
Another species {Ribes leptanthmn), common in San Luis Obispo 
and Kern counties, resembles the flavor of the cultivated goose- 
berry, and is free from spines. 

Cranberries and Huckleberries (Vaccinium sp.). — We have sev- 
eral species belonging to the same botanical genus as the Eastern 
cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth of plant and 
character of fruit. The fruit of two species is reddish, but insipid. 
Other species {V. ovatum, etc.) have dark blue or purple fruit. 
.Some of these are locally esteemed, and the argument drawn from 
them is that the cranberry of commerce would succeed. It should 
be stated, however, that the situations in which these plants thrive 



A GRAND CLUSTER OF BERRIES 



43 



are not at all according to the requirements of the bog cranberry. 
A huckleberry {Vaccinium ovatum) is largely gathered in the red- 
wood region of northern California, for canning and pie-making. 
The berries are juicy and delicious, and the preserved fruit has a 
very agreeable flavor. In one year as many as two thousand boxes 
were profitably gathered on the hills of western Sonoma county. 

Other Berries. — There are many small, wild fruits, commonly 
designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical interest. 
The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judging by the taste of 
Indians, birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be much more than 
ornamental in the eyes of white people. They may be briefly 
enumerated : 

The "manzanita" {Arctostaphylos manzanita) , the "little apple" 
of the Spaniard, bears a rather dry but sub-acid fruit. 

The "bear berry" {Arctostaphylos uvaursi) is esteemed by the 
Indians both as food and medicine. 

The "western buffalo berry" {Shcpherdia argentea) has small 
acid edible fruits. 

The "salal" (a species of Gaultheria), small fruit, either red or 
purple, is also a favorite of the aborigines. 

Of "barberries" we have three species of Berheris. One, aqui- 
folium, is called the "Oregon grape," chiefly notable for its hand- 
some bloom, which has been chosen the State flower of Oregon. 
The fruit is dark blue, and the root is said to be a febrifuge. An- 
other species (nervosa) has a larger fruit, which is esteemed in 
cookery; and a third species (pinnata) bears a small, pleasant- 
flavored fruit. It is the Lena amarilla of the Spanish Californians. 

Our "service berry" (Amelanchier alnifolia) is from a quarter 
to a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color. 

The "lemon berry" is a fruit of Rhus integrifolia, and is coated 
with an acid exudation which is said to dissolve in water and make 
a pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus trilobata is said to have both 
a sweet and an acid coating. 

The berries of the "toyon" or "tollon" (Heteromeles arbutifolia), 
or "California holly," are said to be eaten by Indians, but they serve 
the white people a better purpose in Christmas decorations. 

The "jujube " of commerce (Zisyphiis jujuba) has a local rela- 
tive in Zisyphus parryi, which is, however, dry, and mealy, rather 
than juicy. 

The "beach strawberry," or "sea fig," is the fruit of Mesembrian- 
themitm aequilaterale, a relative of the ice-plant. The good-sized 
fruit is gathered along the seashore, and remotely suggests a straw- 
berry. 

Wild Olive (Forestieria Neo-mexicana), — This is a tall willow- 
like shrub, found in springy places on the borders of the Mojave 
Desert. It bears an abundance of small fruits which, from their 
botanical relationship to the olive, have attracted' some attention. 



44 • CALIFORNIA FRUITS; HOW TO GROW THEM 

Experiments to determine its standing as a possible root for the 
olive have been suggested. 

Wild Nuts of California. — The wild nuts of California are of 
very little commercial importance. The wild almond (Prunus , 
Andersonii) of the" eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada is chiefly of 
botanical interest, although some experiments are in progress in 
its use as a grafting stock for the sweet almond. The California 
filbert {Corylus Calif ornica) has none of the quality of the im- 
proved filberts nor even of the wild hazelnut. Our chestnut 
{Castaiiopsis chrysophylla) has a sweet kernel, but a hard shell, 
almost like a hazelnut ; its variety, sempervirens or Bush Chin- 
quapin of the Sierra Nevada and dry Coast Range, is said to have 
a bitter flavored kernel. Our native walnut {Juglans Calif ornica) 
is better in flavor than the Eastern black walnut, but its hard shell 
makes it of little commercial account in competition with better, 
cultivated nuts. 

The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local market 
is the "pinenut" — seeds of several species of Pacific coast pines, 
particularly the "Nevada Nut Pine" or "One-leaf Pinon." Their 
flavor is somewhat resinous, but is agreeable. 

The seeds of two species of palms, Washingtonia Ulifera and the 
Lower California Erythea armata, are sought for by the Indians, 
who also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Mojavensis, which 
somewhat resembles in shape the banana, and in flavor the fig, and 
is called the "wild date." 

The Indians also use the acorns of several species of California 
oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water, and 
then making a rude bread of the acorn meal. 

The "jajoba," or "goat-nut" (Simmondsia Calif ornica), is a low 
shrub, the fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are 
eaten like almonds, and when dried by fire and ground they are 
used as a beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or 
as a simple infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of 
fatty matter; the oil is suitable for food and of good quality, and 
possesses the immense advantage of not turning rancid. In Lower 
California it is prepared by boiling with water. 

The nuts of the California laurel were roasted by the native 
tribes and esteemed a great delicacy. Further improvements in the 
preparation process may some day adapt them to the white man's 
tastes. 

Cactus. — The common cactus (Opuntia Engelmanni) bears a 
sweet edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for 
winter use. By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after slight 
fermentation, they consider especially nutritious and stimulating. 
The local species has been used by Mr. Burbank in some of his 
• crossing to secure improved spineless fruits on plants of more vigor- 
ous growth and productiveness. 



CHAPTER V 
CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS 

Cultivated fruits were first brought into California from the 
south. Mission work among the Indians of Lower California was 
actually begun by the establishment of the mission at Loreto by 
Salvatierra, October 19, 1697. The following years horses and 
cattle were brought from Mexico, and from this introduction came 
ultimately the vast herds which roamed the hills and plains of Cali- 
fornia. Probably the first seeds and plants of cultivated vegetables 
and fruits came about the same time, for there was a small garden 
and a few fruit trees at Loreto in 1701. But Loreto was not fitted 
for horticulture, and in the same year an expedition in charge of 
Father Ugarte, who is called the founder of agriculture in Lower 
California, crossed over the mountain to a more suitable location 
at the mission of Vigge Biaundo, which had been destroyed some 
time before by hostile Indians. Ugarte restored the mission, made 
irrigating ditches, and planted fruit trees and vines. This effort 
was successful from a horticultural point of view, for in 1707 
Ugarte made more wine than would suffice for mission use, and 
sent some to Mexico in exchange for other goods. Thus began the 
export trade in California wine. 

The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in Lower 
California until there were fifteen missions, at five of which there 
were vineyards, and presumably as many or more which had gar- 
dens with fruit trees. 

The variety of fruits grown in Lower California was small. 
They had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and some 
olives and dates. There were no North European fruits, with the 
exception of a few peaches, which, however, did not appear to 
thrive. 

The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower California, in 1768, by 
the Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra, at once 
pressed northward, and entered the territory which is now the State 
of California. Their first establishment was at San Diego, in 1769. 
Thence they proceeded northward, braving many perils, and under- 
going great hardships, establishing missions through the coast 
region of the State. Credit is given to the secular head of the 
expedition to San Diego, Don Joseph de Galvez, representing the 
king of Spain, for ordering the carrying of seeds of fruits, grains, 
vegetables, and flowers into the new territory, and from the plant- 
ing at San Diego the same varieties were taken to the twenty mis- 
sions afterwards established. 

45 



46 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Kinds of Fruit at the Missions, — It is of no little interest to 
ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mission 
orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at Santa Clara, 
with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all thrifty and prom- 
ising. He also describes at the mission of San Buena Ventura 
apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and peaches and pome- 
granates. Robinson described the orchards connected with the 
Mission of San Gabriel as very extensive, having among their trees 
oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears, peaches, pomegranates, and 
figs. There were also grapes in abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed 
at San Luis Obispo Mission the orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape. 
At the Mission San Jose he found an inclosure of fifteen or twenty 
acres, the whole of which was planted with trees and grape-vines. 
There were six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and 
peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance and in full perfec- 
tion. The quality of the pears he found excellent, but the apples 
and peaches indifferent. E. S. Capron, in a general enumeration 
of the fruits grown at the missions, includes cherries. 

Early Planting by Others than the Padres. — Though the earlier 
Spanish population had the example of successful horticulture 
before them for half a century at the missions, they did not seem 
inclined to emulate the efforts of the padres upon their own grounds, 
except in occasional instances. General Vallejo planted fruit trees 
in Sonoma Valley as early as 1830, and of his place it is said : "It is 
an old and well-cultivated place, well known in all the northern 
portion of California while this State was still Mexican territory." 
Exceptions there were, also, at the south. The old fruit garden on 
the Cumulos Rancho, in Ventura county, has become famous. 
Fremont, writing of his observations in 1846, says that among the 
arid, brush-covered hills south of San Diego he found little valleys 
converted by a single spring into crowded gardens, where pears, 
peaches, quinces, pomegranates, grapes, olives, and other fruits 
grew luxuriantly together. 

Scarcely had six years elapsed subsequent to the settlement 
of the pueblo of San Jose on its present site, before the inhabitants 
were enjoying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Before 1805 more 
was grown than could be disposed of in its natural state. 

Decline of the Mission Orchards. — The decline of most of the 
mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the 
establishments in 1834. There were a few exceptions, where the 
mission lands fell into enterprising Spanish or American hands. 
During the years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the 
more hardy survived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine 
in withstanding drouth and the trampling and browsing of the 
cattle that roamed unmolested through the deserted gardens. These 



MISSION FRUITS AFTER GOLD DISCOVERY 47 

pears, as will be described presently, were turned to good account 
by the early American settlers; the olive and the vine furnished 
cuttings for most of the plantations made during the first twenty 
years or more of American occupation. 

But it seems that not all the mission orchards were permitted to 
fall into decay after the secularization. In 1846 Bryant found at 
the Mission San Jose two gardens inclosed by high adobe walls. 
The area was from fifteen to twenty acres, all of which was planted 
with fruit trees and vines. There were about six hundred pear trees 
and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in 
great abundance, the quality of the pears being excellent, the apples 
and peaches indifferent. Other visitors to some of the mission 
orchards between the events of secularization and American occu- 
pation speak of being regaled with pears and milk, a dish which 
seemed to them ambrosial after the weary journeys overland across 
the deserts, or after months of ship fare. 

Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers. — There were quite 
considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and oranges, by 
early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. General Bidwell 
saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest vineyards that he had seen 
in California, and the vines were the most thrifty. Wine was also 
abundant — even the Angelica. Los Angeles had orchards, also, 
mostly of oranges. The largest orange orchards at that time were 
those of Wolfskin, Carpenter, and Louis Vigne. During recent 
years the modern city of Los Angeles has been built over and 
beyond them. 

Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern part 
of the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley in 1838, 
and other fruits later. John Wolfskill, of Winters, saw grapes and 
peaches at Yount's in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took peach pits froin 
Yount's over into Pleasant's Valley, Solano county, in 1851. Dr. 
Marsh, on his place at the base of Mount Diablo, had, in 1842, a 
mission grape vineyard more than an acre in extent, and in good 
bearing. The vines were planted about 1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted 
a few vines on Putah Creek in 1842. 

Partial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens. — After the incom- 
ing of Americans in 1849 some of the old mission trees were secured 
by enterprising men, and made to renew their youth by pruning, 
cultivation, and irrigation, that they might minister to the great 
demand for fruit which sprang up among the gold seekers. The 
trees richly reciprocated the care and attention given them and 
there still exist at the San Gabriel Mission old pear trees grafted 
over with improved varieties by W. M. Stockton in 1854. The first 
fruits offered for sale in San Francisco markets were from the pear 
trees of Santa Clara and San Jose Missions, and from the mission 
grapevines of the same localities, and of Los Angeles county. 



48 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



These grapes, packed in sawdust, came up the coast by steamer, 
and were then re-shipped to the mining camps, arriving for the 
most part in good condition, and were very popular. It is recorded 
that one thousand iive hundred tons of these grapes were sent from 
Los Angeles county to San Francisco and the mines in 1852. An- 
other instance in which thrift followed neglect is seen in the fact 
that, in 1858, Don Andres Pico, who succeeded to possession of the 
orchard at the San Fernando Mission, did a considerable business 
in drying pears and other fruits, using the labor of the Indians. 

At the present time vestiges of the old mission orchards still 
remain, the pears and olives still bearing, and in some cases the old 
date palms guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as reminders 
of the old regime, while the new life of California is surging up 
around them. 

RUSSIAN FRUITS 

The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California was 
by the Russians. The exact date of their planting at Fort Ross on 
the ocean side in Mendocino county, is not known, but is believed 
to have been as early as 1812. The survivors of the original 
Russian planting look "very old and mossy, and are not very 
thrifty, but still bear some fruit every year/' They were planted 
too closely, and have undergone periods of neglect, no doubt. The 
trees are apple for the most part, but there were also cherries, and 
some of both fruits survive. The trees are all believed to have been 
grown from seed, and if this be true some fortunate results were 
obtained, for there is still grown in Green Valley, Sonoma county, 
a medium-sized, bell-shaped apple, lightly striped with red, which is 
called the Fort Ross or Russian apple, and was probably propagated 
by grafts from the Fort Ross orchard. Seeds were also secured 
from this source for propagation of apple trees in early days in that 
section of the State. 



CHAPTER VI 
INTRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES 

The first cultivated fruits of the old era came to California 
with the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the 
American pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made, it 
is not yet possible to declare definitely who brought the first 
budded or grafted trees upon California soil. It is a tradition in the 
family of Martin Lelong, who came to California as a member of 
Stevenson's regiment in 1846, that he brought with him a small 
lot of French varieties. of apples growing in a box, and that they 
were planted in Los Angeles. 

In the fall of 1849, W. H. Nash joined with R. L. Kilburn in 
ordering from a nursery in western New York a small box of thirty- 
six fruit trees, which, packed in moss, well survived the journey 
around the Horn, arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the 
spring of 1850. The shipment included Rhode Island Greening, 
Roxbury Russet, Winesap, Red Romanite, Esopus Spitzenburg 
apples; Bartlett and Seckel pears; Black Tartarian and Napoleon 
Bigarreau cherries. 

Before this introduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed, for 
several years afterwards, there were many shipments of fruit-tree 
seeds from the eastern States to California. Mr. Barnett planted 
Kentucky seed as early as 1847 in Napa county. T. K. Stewart 
brought to California with him, in 1848, about two hundred pounds 
of vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including peach, pear and 
apple, all of which were planted on the American River, within the 
present limits of Sacramento, in the spring of 1849. At the same 
time he planted figs and olives, and, in 1851, seeds of oranges. From 
all these he secured bearing trees. 

But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits were 
but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which followed the 
great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first thought — to 
get gold directly from the soil — would admit the second — to get it 
indirectly, by agricultural and horticultural arts — there came a 
demand for something better than the wild fruits of the mountains, 
better and more abundant than the fruits from the mission orchards. 
At first everything in the line of fruit-tree seed which could be 
obtained was planted. Thus the immediate vicinity of the mines 
soon began to show growing fruit trees. But seedlings of any kind 
would not satisfy the planters, and effort was put forth in every 
direction after grafted trees of the best varieties. Oregon had a 
few years the start of California as an inviting field for immigration, 

49 



50 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

and the advantage also of winning the attention of those who went 
out, not as gold seekers, but as agricultural producers. Oregon 
had grafted trees in bearing, and nursery stock as well, about the 
time the demand sprang up for it in California. Its introduction 
was then, however, of very recent date. Up to 1847 the cultivated 
fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the Hudson 
Bay Company and by early settlers from the Mississippi Valley. In 
that year occurred the first considerable, if not the very first, intro- 
duction of grafted fruit upon the Pacific coast. The story of that 
venture has been so often wrongly told that it is well to record its 
interesting incidents in the words of one quite near to the event, 
if not actually participating in it. Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukee, 
Oregon, writes : 

In 1847 my brother, Henderson Lewelling, crossed the plains from 
Henry County, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general 
variety of grafted fruits. He fitted up a wagon for the purpose, selected 
small plants, and planted them in soil in the boxes and watered them to 
keep them alive. He told me that in some places he had to carry water a 
mile up the mountains to save his trees. When he arrived in Oregon, late 
in the fall, he had something over three hundred plants alive. The same 
fall William Meek arrived in Oregon with a few varieties of fruit trees. 
He and my brother put their stock together, and commenced the first 
nursery of grafted fruits on the Pacific Coast. It was situated five miles 
south of Portland, just below Milwaukee, on the east bank of the Willa- 
mette River. For want of seedling stOick they could not increase their 
nursery much until, in 1850, my brother John and I crossed the plains, 
bringing with us some apple seed, which we planted that winter. We 
also found a gentleman named Pugh, in Washington County, Oregon, 
who had planted some apple seed in the spring of 1850, which had grown 
well, and we bought his stock. During the winter of 1850-51 we put in 
about twenty thousand grafts. In March, 1851, I went to Sacramento, 
taking with me a box of grafts of apple, pear, peach, plum and cherry, and 
sold them in Sacramento. I believe I have the honor of being the first to dis- 
tribute grafted fruit in California. 

Other Early Introductions. — The introduction of grafted trees, 
for sale by Mr. Lewelling in the spring of 1851, was quickly followed 
by other commercial importations, and by shipments by planters 
for their own use, so that the plantings of 1851-52 were quite large. 
Still there was great doubt as to the success of the trees. The late 
G. G. Briggs, after his great melon profits of 1851, went back to 
New York State for his family, and, returning to California, brought 
with him, as he says, "with no idea that they would succeed, but 
as a reminder of home," fifty peach and a few apple and pear trees. 
To his surprise, the trees grew well in 1852, and the next year 
blossomed and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. The 
pears also bore some fine fruit the same year. 

Besides the introduction of grafted trees which have been men- 
tioned, there were others in 1852, for, at a fair held in San Francisco 
in 1853, there were several kinds of apples, grown by Isaac A. 
Morgan, of Bolinas, on trees planted the previous year. Apples 
were also shown from Napa. David Spence, of Monterey, showed 



EARLY GARDENS OP DWARF TREES 



51 



the first almonds grown in California. During the winter of 1852-53 
the distribution of grafted trees must have extended widely over 
the State. Five dollars for a small tree was frequently paid at the 
nursery of Meek & Lewelling, in Milwaukee, Oregon, and the trees 
were carried overland into the mining districts of California, as well 
as brought to San Francisco for distribution through the valleys. 

Fruit Gardens, not Orchards. — It is interesting to note that much 
of the pioneer effort was expended upon fruit gardens rather than 
fruit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direction. One was 
the popular thought, which, however, was very early found to be 
erroneous, that frequent and copious irrigation was essential to the 
growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another was the ambition, 
which was correct, both from a horticultural and commercial point 
of view, to secure the fruit just as soon as possible, foi the double 
purpose of determining" what was adapted to the novel conditions, 
and to secure the magnificent prices which fruit commanded in the 
market. For these ends dwarfing stocks naturally suggested them- 
selves, and were employed to an extent which seems wonderful 
when it is remembered that now hardly a fruit tree in the State is 
worked upon a dwarfing stock. Very early, say from '52 to '58, 
at San Jose, Oakland, Stockton and Sacramento, small areas, which 
would now only be considered respectable house lots, were turned 
to great profit with dwarf pear and apple trees. The place of Mr. 
Fountain, near Oakland, was called, in 1857, "The finest orchard 
of dwarf trees in the State." It consisted of three acres set with 
one thousand six hundred apple and pear trees, all dwarf from 
root grafts, two years old, and four feet high, and most of them in 
good bearing. He started the branches from the ground, pruning 
severely, and heading in during the winter. He claimed thai 
dwarfing gave him better and larger fruit, and from two to three 
years sooner than with standard trees. He did not irrigate, but 
plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to the first of June. 

But though these dwarf-tree gardens were formally declared 
"to be the fashion," and though the list of stock of one Sacramento 
nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five standard and eight thou- 
sand and sixty-eight dwarf pear trees for sale, the foundations of 
the greater orchards were early laid upon the basis of standard 
trees. Thus the Briggs' orchard, of one thousand acres, on the 
moist land of the Yuba, was planted with trees sixteen feet apart 
each way, and Mr. Lewelling, and other early planters on the rich 
lands of central Alameda county, adopted about the same distance. 

Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwarf trees, and 
contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan upon which the 
pioneer of pioneers, General Sutter, laid out his orchard on Hock 
Farm, on the west bank of the Feather River, eight miles from its 
junction with the Yuba, of which the following description was 
written about the time the trees were coming into bearing: 



52 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit orchard, the trees 
and shrubs being so arranged as to present a unique landscape garden, 
nearly every article in which is productive of fruit. The arrangement of 
the fruit trees is peculiar, a large portion of them being set on either side 
of the broad avenues opening through the extensive grounds in various 
directions, imparting to the whole an air of picturesque beauty seldom 
seen. 

But neither the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad 
landscape-garden plan has survived. Neither of them harmonized 
with the commercial idea of orcharding — large production and 
economy of cultivation, and both are now but curiosities of the 
early horticulture of California. 

Irrigation Abandoned.-^The early abandonment of dwarf trees 
suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the valleys of 
Northern California — as early as 1856. Facilities which had been 
secured for irrigation of orchards were allowed to go unused, 
because it was seen that it was better not to use them. One case 
is reported in Napa county where means to furnish the orchard 
with thirty thousand gallons of water per day were allowed 
to lie idle. The substitution of cultivation for water, of 
course, attended this reform. The announcement of a prac- 
ticC; in 1856, "to plow deep, dig wide and deep holes for plant- 
ing, and work the ground from February to July, allowing no grass 
or weeds to grow among the trees," shows that the thorough and 
clean culture, for which California is famous, is not a recent idea 
in our practice. Even the abandonment of the plow, and almost 
weekly use of the cultivator, was the practice of some growers in 
the San Jose district before 1860. In fact, the descriptions of orchard 
management in that day include nearly the whole variety of meth- 
ods which now prevail. The experience of the two decades has 
shown that irrigation facilities are more valuable even for deciduous 
fruits than was once thought possible. This proposition will be 
discussed in the chapter on irrigation. 

Early Wisdom and Enterprise. — It is evident to anyone who 
studies the records, that California was -^ry fortunate in numbering 
among the early settlers so many men with horticultural tastes, skill, 
and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees were multi- 
plied, and the confidence with which these early comers entered 
upon the nursery business, shows their training. Although there 
were many trees brought here from the East and from Europe, they 
constituted only a very small percentage of the plantings of the 
first few years, but the orchards, with the exception of a very small 
number of trees introduced to furnish grafting and budding stock, 
were the product of the soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes 
all the more wonderful how so much could be done in a new 
country, in a distant part of the world, in so very short a time. It 
was an observation which was put upon record as early as 1856, 



BEGINNINGS OF FRUIT SHIPMENT 



53 



that "some varieties of fruit are much improved by change to this 
State, and some are not benefited." The test seems to have been 
that if a variety was not better than at the East, it should be 
discarded. 

The First Oversupply. — The wonderful stimulus given to the 
fruit interest by the results attained in growth and in marketing, 
soon induced larger plantings than the demand warranted. In 
1857 it was publicly stated that "there are single farms in this 
State, containing each over half a million fruit trees in orchard and 
nursery — one person owning enough trees, when fully matured, to 
produce as much fruit, other than grapes, as will be sold this year 
throughout our State. The day is not far distant when fruit will 
be an important crop for raising and fattening swine." This was, 
to a certain extent, a statement of a croaker, for plantations con- 
tinued, rare varieties were brought from the East, the South, and 
from Europe; the growth of some fruits continued to be very 
profitable, and the nursery business, confined to fewer hands, was 
profitable also. The idea that quality rather than size should be 
striven for, led to more discrimination in propagation and better 
treatment of trees. 

The decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit 
interest of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly 
planted trees died from lack of proper cultivation and pruning, and 
the borer wrought sad havoc. In 1860 and 1861 there was serious 
depression. It is recorded that peaches were worth but one cent a 
pound, and many were allowed to go to waste as not worth gather- 
ing. The flood of 1862 destroyed many trees along the Sacramento 
River, and replanting was slow until prices began to improve, as 
they did soon afterward. The rapid development of the mining 
mterest in Nevada, and the construction of roads across the Sierras, 
opened the way for the disposition of much fruit growth in the foot- 
hills and in the region around Sacramento. 

The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and growers 
were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for themselves. 
Something was done in this direction, for by 1867 the local product 
of canned fruit was equal to the demand. Drying did not advance 
so fast; for two years later there were imports of six thousand' 
barrels of dried apples, while the hundreds of thousands of bushels 
of the fruit were rotting under the trees in our orchards. 

The decade under review was also notable for the first appear- 
ance of cured raisins and prunes at the State fair of 1863. The 
raisins were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the report 
states that so-called raisins exhibited previous to that time were 
merely dried grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez, was the first 
exhibitor of Muscat raisins, and he exhibited also dried grapes of 
four varieties to show the contrast between a raisin and a dried 



54 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

grape. J. R. Nickerson, of Placer county, exhibited' the dried prunes, 
which were of the German variety. 

Though this decade was one of uncertainty and doubt, there 
Avere rich lessons of experience learned, and the foundations for 
coming greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines of 
production trace their beginnings to this period, and their later 
developments have been beyond any anticipations then cherished. 

The New Era. — Another era in California may be marked as 
beginning with the year 1869, because then the first fresh fruits 
were sent East over the newly-opened overland line. The first sea- 
son's shipments amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples, 
grapes, and plums ; in 1870 seventy car-loads, or about seven hun- 
dred tons, were sent. 

The Eastern shipment of fresh fruits began its new era with the 
year 1886, when the first full train load of fifteen cars of fresh fruit 
from deciduous trees went overland. Shipping train loads of 
oranges from Southern California began at an earlier date. 

During the present decade shipments of fruit and fruit products 
have increased until a very large aggregate in weight and value has 
been attained. The volume of shipments beyond State lines is 
shown by the statement on the next page compiled from the records 
of the State Board of Trade. 

The Fruit Interest in 1910. — The fruit interests of California 
now constitute the greatest single industry of California and the 
fruit output of California is far greater than that of any other State 
in the Union. Notable progress has been secured in planting, in 
the growth, preparation and marketing of the product, in the contest 
with injurious insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all things 
which contribute to success. It is true that there are problems still 
unsolved, and there have been grievous losses to individuals who 
have proceeded upon too great expectations or have erred in loca- 
tion for various fruits. Such mishaps will be less frequent in the 
future. At present there is a disposition to proceed more cautiously 
and to profit by the lessons which have been learned, many of which 
will be mentioned in their proper places in later chapters. 

Some dimensions of the present fruit interests may be sug- 
gested by the following statistics which have been carefully com- 
piled from reports of the supervisors of the counties submitted to 
the State Agricultural Society in accordance with the law of 1905. 
These reports are published, unfortunately, without summaries, in 
the Report of the Society for 1908. The figures for a few counties 
which did not comply with the law are supplied from other sources. 

The total acreage in 1898 was 542,399; since that year there 
has been a gain of nearly seventy per cent. 



RECORDS OF OVERLAND SHIPMENT 



55 



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56 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



It is interesting to estimate the total value of the annual products 
of California trees and vines, using the best data and judgment 
available. Valuation has advanced more than pro rata with in- 
creased acreage of improved market demand, due to better handling 
and distribution. 



Number and Acreage of Fruit Trees and Vines in California, 1908. 



Fruit. Bearing. Non-bearing 

Apple 2,298,454 653,642 

Apricot 2,304,807 616,792 

Cherry 765,866 125,411 

Pear 1,743,671 274,259 

Peach 8,433,314 4,481,696 

Nectarine 84,946 7,659 

Plum 1,672,417 240,734 

Prune 8,499,369 761,289 

Quince 43,148 5,354 

Figt 258,788 233,463 

Olive 1,252,367 398,810 

Lemon 1,320,447 237,339 

Orange 8,368,897 1,696,022 

Almond 1,200,301 165,111 

Walnut 755,637 248,893 

Grapes, acres 247,272 83,726 

Berries, acres ..'. 12,658 2,019 

Totals 39,002,429t 10,146,474t 

t Effective acreage probably considerably less. 
I Acreage of grapes and berries omitted. 



Total. 


Acreage. 


2,952,096 


39,301 


2,921,599 


38,688 


891,277 


11,883 


2,017,930 


22,423 


12,915,010 


143,500 


92,605 


1,024 


1,913,151 


21,257 


9,270,658 


110,275 


48,502 


285 


492,251 


6,563 


1,651,177 


22,051 


1,557,786 


17,302 


9,065,919 


100,702 


1,365,412 


18,707 


1,004,530 


25,113 




320,998 
14,677 






48,159,103 


914,749 



Valuation of a Year's Fruits and Fruit Products. 



Kinds. Pounds. 

Fresh deciduous 322,448,000 

Dried deciduous 267,696,000 

Citrus fruits 1,080,000,000 

Raisins 140,000,000 

Nuts 21,775,000 

Canned fruits 170,270,000 

Olives and olive oil 

Wine 294,944,184 

Brandy 14,000,000 



* An estimate upon meager data. 
t Basis of 20c per gallon. 
t Basis of 60c per gallon. 



Sellins 



Price per lb. 


Value. 


2c 


$ 6,448,960 


6c 


16,061,460 


.2c 


21,600,000 


3c 


4,200,000 


10c 


2,177,500 


5c 


8,513,500 




1,850,000* 


2y2ct 


7,373,604 


8ct 


1,120,000 




$69,345,024 



These amounts, which are averages of several recent years, are 
of available, surplus for distant shipment. They do not include 
the local consumption by two millions of fruit-loving people in 
California. 



FRUIT INTEREST IN STATE DEVELOPMENT. gy 

INFLUENCE OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRIES UPON 
CALIFORNIA DEVELOPMENT 

Enlistment in California fruit growing has proved exceedingly 
satisfactory to tens of thousands of people in the various ways 
along which they have approached it. The fruit districts are full 
of cottage homes sheltering families of those who have begun with 
small investments and have made a good livelihood, and often con- 
siderably more, from a few acres of fruits grown largely without 
expenditure for hired labor. The study of the needs of the tree or 
vine and ministering to them by personal effort has brought new 
health and new incentive to the worn and weary who have taken 
up outdoor life and activity in California fruit growing with a wise 
choice of location, land and fruits, for obviously in all investments 
one must be wise as well as willing. 

In large operations 'hundreds have notably succeeded by pur- 
chasing good land in large tracts at low rates and making ample 
investment for its development and improvement. Some of the 
most delightful of our towns and villages have arisen as a direct 
result of such employment of capital. Well established communi- 
ties, well churched and schooled, well provided for in local trade 
and transportation and widely known citizens, have followed invest- 
ment money and devoted effort in colony enterprises. 

Hundreds, also, have purchased large tracts of wild land and 
have developed fine estates for their own personal gratification, 
with thriving orchards of all kinds of fruits, rich pastures tenanted 
with improved livestock, parks, gardens and buildings comparable 
with the estates of the European nobility, except that California 
conditions favor freedom and variety in outdoor effort unknown in 
Europe, and command proportional interest and enthusiasm. 
Estates for winter residences in California are exceptionally desir- 
able, not only because of natural advantages and greater possibili- 
ties of development, but because of the advanced standing of the 
State financially and socially. 

All of these lines of effort, then — home-making in a small way, 
colony enterprise and private estate development — have yielded on 
the whole great satisfaction and success. Fruit growing has been 
the central idea in nearly all of them, but it is obvious that activity 
in any productive line begets opportunity for other lines, and so all 
branches of agriculture have advanced and the diversification is 
highly desirable. Opportunities in manufacture, trade and profes- 
sional effort of all kinds have been quickly seized and developed 
with much originality and success. Fruit growing has created them 
all and has in turn been advanced by all, for every accumulation 
of capital promotes it. Successful toilers in all lines become 
planters. The ancestral delight of the race, to sit beneath one's own 



58 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

vine or fig tree, is nowhere more enthusiastipally manifested than 
in CaHfornia, and nowhere else does the emotion of comfort in 
ownership yield such profound and protracted satisfaction. 

THE OUTLOOK OF THE INDUSTRY 

The outlook for California fruits and fruit products involves 
considerations of much economic interest. Though the volume is 
already large and there may be experienced now and then tem- 
porary dullness or depression in this line or that, the business is 
on the whole brisk and profitable. There is such a wide range in 
the fruits grown and the products made from them, and such 
changes in local conditions in the many purchasing States and 
foreign countries with which Californians deal, that there must be 
some fluctuations in the values of some of the supplies ofifered in 
distant market. The result is that first one fruit and then another 
one seems to be more or less profitable. The fact, however, that 
all are increasing in volume and the total traffic brings each year 
more money to the State, is a demonstration of the standing of the 
collective output. Each year new markets are found, both at home 
and abroad, and the capacity of old centers of distribution is shown 
to be greater than anticipated. There is every reason to expect that 
the products can be profitably multiplied. There have been secured, 
largely through co-operative efforts of growers, so many improve- 
ments in handling and transportation that distant shipment has 
become more safe and profitable and distribution far wider. It is 
reasonable to believe that further improvement in movement and 
reduction of cost will be realized and the per capita consumption 
in the populous parts of our own country proportionally advanced. 
In spite of all that wintry States can do for local supplies, Cali- 
fornia can find open markets before and after the short ripening 
season of the Eastern States for her early and late fruits, and can 
use her own midseason fruits in the drying and canning industries, 
though it is a fact that in the height of the Eastern fruit season a 
considerable quantity of California fruit will command the highest 
prices because of its exceptional size, beauty and keeping qualities. 
The citrus fruits, so long as they are allowed to remain under the 
favoring tariff which now exists, will continue to supply an Amer- 
ican product of exceptional quality and freshness, while prunes, 
nuts, raisins and wines will not only do this, but will push forward 
into the trade of Europe, as they are now beginning to do in a most 
vigorous manner. A very significant report was made by one of the 
United States Consuls in France recently that our canned and dried 
fruits were appearing on the shelves of all the provision shops of 
the smaller French towns and were being freely sold without reduc- 
ing the prices of the locally grown fruit. Practically the same 
thing could be said of points in Germany and other European 



THE FRUIT OUTLOOK 



59 



countries. The fact is that European countries can not grow fruit 
enough to supply their own people and fruit has been largely a 
luxury. California dried fruits are being welcomed by the great 
middle classes and are likely to become a staple of their diet. This 
explains the ultimate disposition of the large amounts now going 
direct from California to Europe. 

California's exports of high-class food supplies to European 
countries are likely to reach values like those of the wheat and 
barley which we are now sending to that part of the world. The 
development of adjacent territory on the American continent and 
other Pacific countries may shape the future of California as a fruit 
producing State in a way which can at present only be dreamed 
about. It should be remembered that California has a unique char- 
acter from a horticultural point of view. Not only does the State 
have a monopoly of semi-tropical conditions of the United States 
(excepting small parts of the Gulf States and Arizona), but Cali- 
fornia has command of the whole of northwest America and the 
whole of northeast Asia, not only in the supply of semi-tropical 
fruits, but in early ripening of hardy fruits as well. 

California does not grow tropical fruits, as has already been 
conceded in Chapter I. They must come from the islands and the 
tropical south coast countries. Semi-tropical fruits are, however, 
vastly more important in commerce than tropical, and a region 
which successfully combines northern orchard fruits with the whole 
semi-tropical class commands the fruit trade of all accessible popu- 
lous regions which have limited fruit capabilities. There are now 
four such regions with the kind of population which makes for 
industrial advancement — Southern Europe, South Africa, parts of 
Australia and California. As already shown, we are competing 
successfully with South Europe in the capacious markets of North 
Europe. South Africa and Australia are unfortunate in lying in 
the southern hemisphere, *which is mostly ocean wastes, and they 
are handicapped by tropic crossing in their northern shipments, 
although the fact of opposite seasons may help them, and also us, 
m avoiding competition of trade which both desire. California will 
soon be less than half as far sea from European and Atlantic coast 
ports as at present, but California in the future will have less 
occasion for such distant recourses. Prophets, far-seeing in world 
courses, declare that the Pacific ocean is to be the arena for com- 
merce greater than the world has yet seen, and the Pacific coast 
countries are to contain the greater part of the world's population. 
This greatest quartosphere with its superlative opportunities and 
activities will have California as its treasure house of fruits and 
fruit products. During the long winter the citrus fruits will afford 
tonic and refreshment, and before hardy fruits bloom in northern 
climes the same fruits will appear from the early ripening districts 
of California. In this traffic California will not only be practically 



60 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



without a competitor, but, sitting beside the sea, there will also be 
every advantage of water transportation and the sustaining ocean 
temperatures for the fruits in transit. California dried and canned 
fruits will render acceptable diet even through the most Arctic 
stretches along which development may advance in North America 
and North Asia, while a succession of fresh fruits will flow to all 
Pacific ports throughout the year. California, too, will be the winter 
residence for all the North Pacific millionaires and the haven of rest 
and recuperation for all who are worn by Arctic cold or tropic heat 
throughout the great circle of the Pacific ocean. Here the arts will 
flourish, education attain its highest achievements and culture pre- 
vail. Then fruit growing both as a commercial enterprise and as a 
home delight will attain value, volume and perfection, of which 
present achievements are but a faint foreshadowing. 



PART TWO: CULTURAL 

CHAPTER VII 

CLEARING LAND FOR FRUIT 

The greater part of the orchard and vineyard area of this State 
was naturally almost clear for planting. The removal of large trees, 
which paid the cost of the work in firewood, or the grubbing out of 
willows on some especially rich bottom land, was about the extent 
of clearing which our earlier planters had to undertake, and many 
of them perhaps never had to lift an axe. Still there has always 
been some clearing done,- here and there, even since the earliest 
days, especially upon hill lands, the peculiar value of which for 
some fruits is generally recognized. 

The lands which need clearing are in the main the foot-hill slopes 
of the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. In the south there is 
besides, sometimes, the debris of the desert flora to clear away when 
water is secured and the rich wilderness is subdued. This work is, 
however, so easily accomplished that it hardly rises to the dignity 
of "clearing," as understood by the Eastern mind. 

It is not possible in this connection to enumerate all of the great 
variety of shrubs and trees which the settler lays low in his clearing. 
The grand trees which figure most largely in lumbering operations 
are not met with as a rule in foot-hill clearings. The trees which 
the settler encounters are rather the degraded valley growths, which, 
though assuming grand proportions in the valleys, become "scrubs" 
amid the harsher environment of the hillsides. This is notably true 
of the oaks and of some other trees. 

Chamisal and Chaparral. — Of true shrubs to be removed, it will 
only be possible to name a few of the most abundant. The common 
manzanita (Arctostaphylos mansanita) occurs on dry ridges every- 
where, both on the coast and at great elevations, sometimes only 
growing a few inches from the ground, sometimes rising eight or 
ten feet. Next to this, perhaps, the two terms which the land clearer 
has most to use are "chaparral" and "chamisal." To distinguish 
between them it may be said, howeyer, that the term chamisal 
properly applies to the shrub Adenostoma fasciculatmn var. obtusi- 
folium, which is abundant on dry soils in the Coast Ranges and more 
rarely in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, often covering extensive 
areas with dense and almost impenetrable growth, producing an 
effect on the landscape like that of the heaths of the Old World. 

61 



62 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Another species, A. sparsifoUuni, with narrow, scattered leaves, is 
sometimes abundant on the mountains east of San Diego. 

By chaparral is generally meant shrubs of several species of 
Ccanothus, forming dense thickets and giving its name to certain 
soils on which it most abounds, both in the Sierra foot-hills and 
the hillsides of the Coast Range, where it is known as California 
lilac. The genus includes the "flat brushes," as they are called, 
from their trailing on the ground, or low, horizontal shoots. 

Other Small Growths. — Shrubs of frequent occurrence also are 
the poison oak {Rhus dwcrsiloha), chiefly on the north sides of hills 
in all parts of the State, but most abundant in the Coast Ranges, 
and other species of Rhus which are not poisonous ; the hazel nut 
(Corylus rostrata), which has been mentioned in the chapter on wild 
fruits; the buckthorns, several species of rhmnnius, well distributed on 
the hillsides and mountains of the State. 

In some parts of the State there are also large areas of sage- 
brush or wormwood made up of several species of Artemisia, sage 
or chia, two species of Salvia, and the famous white and black sages 
of the bee-keepers, which are species of Audihertia, occurring 
chiefly on the mountains of Southern California. Add to these the 
spireas, the azaleas, the rhododendrons, the sweet-scented shrubs 
(Calycauthus), etc., and include nearly all the wild fruit trees, 
bushes and vines mentioned in a previous chapter, and one will 
gain the idea that though California is widely considered a bare 
State, the land clearer has a host of plants confronting him and 
disputing his right to the soil. 

Cost of Clearing. — The cost of clearing on the foot-hill slopes 
of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges is too variable to admit 
of estimates except such as may be made on the spot by experi- 
enced persons. The cost varies, of course, according to the density 
of the growth of trees and underbrush, and the rate of wages to 
be paid. Though in some cases higher cost is reached, probably 
as a rule the expense of clearing will be from $5.00 to $30.00 per 
acre, less whatever the firewood might be worth. In exceptional 
cases, where there is a large growth and a good wood market near 
by, the wood may pay the expense or more ; even the roots of 
chaparral sometimes sell in our cities at $3.00 or $4.00 per cord. 
It sometimes happens that charcoal can be produced to advantage ; 
in fact, there are now orchards upon land which was secured in 
the first instance for the charcoal to be made upon it. Usually, 
however, the clearing is an item of expense and must be reduced 
as much as possible by working in the most economical and ef- 
fective way. 

Though in most cases of clearing by the actual settler himself 
the problem is merely one of muscle and persistence, some few 
hints may be given from the experience of others which may be 



METHODS OF LAND CLEARING gg 

useful. Spare time during the summer and fall can often be used 
to advantage with a sharp axe in trimming up the smaller trees, 
which are large enough to yield fencing material, and getting out 
posts from the redwoods and oaks, and rails and pickets from the 
pines. By thus using the waste material the settler can often get 
out enough fencing material to inclose his land and thus save 
considerable expense. Brush, too, which can not be made use of, 
can be lopped ofif — in short, all the sharp axe work can be done in 
a dry time. The actual clearing, however, should be done in 
winter, when the ground is wet and soft, and digging is easy or 
"snaking out" is possible. 

Partial and Thorough Clearings. — Orchards are planted on both 
partially and thoroughly cleared land. By the former practice 
clearing enough is done to give space for the tree holes, the debris 
is burned up, and the trees planted. In this kind of work the 
stumps are left to be taken out at a convenient season, the object 
being to get fruit trees to growing as soon as possible. Where 
one is working with little more than his own muscle, and has no 
capital, this sort of planting is better, perhaps, than not planting 
at all, but it must be borne in mind that all subsequent work will 
be done at a great disadvantage, and as cultivation is likely to be 
very imperfect, it would be a question whether in the end anything 
would be gained by such a plan. The encumbered character of 
the ground will, of course, prevent the use of the horse in cultiva- 
tion until most of the stumps are removed. Aside from this, 
decaying stumps and roots in the soil often kill the young trees ; 
especially is this the case with old oak stumps. 

Clearing land for orchard or vineyard is a very dififerent thing 
from clearing for pasture, as is done in the redwood region of the 
northwest Coast Ranges of the State, where the stumps are un- 
touched ; the trees not taken by the lumberman are girdled and 
left a prey to decay and storms, and the brush slashed and burned 
every few years to prevent it from completely taking possession 
of the land. Clearing for fruit should be thorough, everything 
which will interfere with good cultivation removed ; roots grubbed 
so that as little shooting up as possible is secured ; the ground 
evened up to obviate standing water, and, where needed, arrange- 
ments made for irrigation and drainage, as will be considered later. 

Removal of Trees.— The first operation in clearing will be the 
removal of the trees. This can be partly done in the dry season 
if one has unemployed time. In such case the tree is felled and 
worked up into fare-wood and the stump left for subsequent treat- 
ment when the ground is moist. Unless there is idle time to 
employ, the whole work can, however, be better done in the winter, 
for then the top of the tree may be made to help pull out its own 
roots. This is done sometimes by digging out the soil and cutting 



g4 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

off the main lateral roots below the depth to which the plow will 
reach. By thus reducing its anchorage- the tree will topple over, 
or may be pulled over with a team and tackle, and it will usually 
lift out its stump quite effectively. 

A Steam Puller. — An arrangement for tearing out trees without 
digging has been used to some extent in Santa Cruz county, which 
IS said to handle redwood trees up to four feet in diameter success- 
fully. It consists of a portable engine and a "puller," which is a 
windlass operated by steam, from which a wire cable is carried to 
the tree which is to be pulled down. A strong chain is put around 
the tree at a distance above the ground proportioned to its diam- 
eter in such a way as to give necessary leverage. The immensely 
strong hook at the end of the cable is attached to this chain and 
the cable is slowly wound upon the reel. The coil begins to grow 
taut, a dull creak and strain are heard as the roots begin to be 
torn from the earth. Two chains are used, a second tree being 
prepared while the first is falling, that no time may be lost. The 
cable is detached from the falling tree, and a horse draws it from 
amid the debris of fallen foliage to the next victim. The extraction 
of roots by this method of pulling is said to be very complete, and 
the earth is loosened to a considerable depth. 

Powerful traction engines, manufactured for hauling combined 
harvesters and steam plows, have also been very successfully used 
for the removal of large trees in land clearing. 

Horse-Power Stump Pullers. — The use of horse-power devices 
for tree felling and stump extraction has increased considerably 
of late. The one which has achieved good results is a local invention 
called the "California Stump Puller." It is simply a specially- 
designed capstan worked by one horse, with a wire cable five- 
eighths of an inch in diameter, .an improved snatch block, chains, 
and a drafthook to unite the cable with the chains. Power is 
applied to the capstan with a sweep. It is calculated that with 
this device, properly adjusted, one horse is enabled to produce an 
effect equal to the capacity of 60 horses without it, and that a 1,200- 
pound horse which can move a dead weight of one and a half tons 
for a short distance can move a dead weight of 90 tons with the 
devices employed in the machine. It is so rapidly adjustable that 
on one trial in Napa county eighteen stumps were pulled in eight- 
een minutes, long roots coming clear out of the ground with each 
stump. 

The Use of Powder. — Another means for the removal both of 
stumps and of growing trees which has come into quite wide use 
during the last few years, is high explosives, which have vastly 
cheapened the clearing of lands where either large trees or stumps 
have to be removed. Full instructions for the use of powder are 



REMOVING SHRUBS AND BRUSH 



65 



furnished by the agents in San Francisco, and they often send an 
expert to start the work and give instruction if there is much to 
be done. It has been estimated that the cost of handling trees 
and stumps with explosives is less than one-fifth that by hand 
grubbing, .and the ratio of saving increases as the trees are larger, 
as powder is cheaper than muscle. 

Removing Shrubs and Brush. — In the case of removmg shrubs 
of a somewhat tall growth, the top is made to help out the roots. 
This is' done either with a good strong rope or a chain. To do 
this requires two men and a pair of horses, and two chains, each 
ten or twelve feet long. A chain should be placed around the bush 
some distance above the ground, to give leverage. If the bush is 
not removed at the first pull, start the horses in the opposite direc- 
tion. While the driver is unfastening the chain from the chaparral, 
the second man can place the other chain around another bush, 
and the one who gets through his work first should at once assist 
the other. In this way the horses are kept in constant employ- 
ment, and neither of the men need lose a moment's time. This 
work should be done when the ground is thoroughly wet. 

Where manzanita grows somewhat upright, as it does on the 
hills north of the bay, the same methods of extraction can be 
employed with it, first slashing off enough to allow adjusting the 
rope or chain a few feet above the ground. Where it grows lower, 
as, for example, on the hills of Santa Clara, the manzanita brush 
is gone over with a roller so as to break it down, and then the 
land is burned over. The roller should be of the ordinary farm 
pattern, but rigged with a tiller (header fashion) so that the horses 
can push the roller and walk over the flattened brush. The only 
object of the rolling is to smash the brush down so that it will 
burn readily. When the brush is got rid of in this way, the plow is 
trusted to get rid of the roots. The plow should be of the pattern 
known as "prairie breaker," without coulter. Horses should be 
shod with a plate of sheet iron between the shoe and hoof to 
prevent snagging, and not less than four of them used. Much 
of the Santa Clara county vine belt was cleared in that way. Of 
course this method only answers for the lighter-rooted growths ; 
tough-rooted chaparral, oak, holly, etc., must be grubbed out, unless 
the roots are snaked out by the tops, as has been described. 

Marketable Products of Clearing. — Whether any money can be 
made from the results of clearing depends altogether upon local 
markets for wood and charcoal and the cost of transportation to 
them. From clearings near large towns enough can be sometimes 
had to pay for the work and hauling, and along railways wood can 
often be shipped with profit. This can only be learned by local 
inquiries. 



66 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Charcoal Burning. — Charcoal can usually be sold to advantage, 
and wood can sometimes be profitably disposed of in this way 
when it can not be marketed for fuel. A considerable acreage of 
unprofitable fruit trees has been disposed of in this way recently. 
Charcoal is made from most kinds of wood, and sometimes stumps 
and large roots are charred. A simple process of charcoal burning 
is given by an experienced burner as follows : 

To bum a pit of charcoal, the prime necessity is to perform the process 
of combustion with the least possible contact with air. Select a suitable 
place not too far from the dwelling, because the operation must be 
watched from time to time by night as well as by day. It is not necessary 
to dig much of a "pit" in the ground. Choose hard limbs of pine, spruce 
or whatever wood is most available of that kind. Dry, dead limbs, if not 
decayed, take for choice. Set them up wigwam fashion, close together, 
fitting them as well as they will allow, the apex forming the chimney. Be 
careful to keep that chimney free, because the fire should be there applied 
to brisk "kindling" as far down as possible. Build round and round, tak- 
ing the precaution to lay three or four straight pieces, three or four inches 
in diameter, along the ground from the outside to the center. These may 
have to be withdrawn to promote the draught. 

The wood all being in place it is now required to cover It thoroughly. 
In the absence of turf or sods, it must be thatched with leafy green 
boughs, or anything that will prevent the earth or dirt that is now heaped 
on from running through. Pack this soil covering carefully, exclude air as 
far as possible, except when the port-holes referred to near the ground 
are needed. The direction of the wind will determine which ones are to 
be opened. When the fire — after a few hours, more or less, according to 
the materials — has got a good hold, close also the chimney. Visit the pit 
regularly night and day; lessen or increase the draught as may seem 
needed; and in a week or ten days the two or three cords of wood should 
be turned into good hard coal. When uncovered, water or dirt should be 
thrown upon coal that is too lively when spread out on the ground. 

Cutting to Kill Brush. — Just when to cut to kill depends upon 
the character of the growth and of the season. One conclusion 
seems to be that with deciduous growths the best time to cut is 
when they have just made their most vigorous growth, and this is 
in the summer — but the month to be chosen for the work will 
depend upon the location, though August is generally selected as 
the best time. 

In the case of evergreens, the cutting should be just before 
the coldest weather, in which they are the nearest dormant. Ever- 
greens, however, diflPer much in tenacity of life, for while most 
kinds are easily killed, the California redwood will endure almost 
any abuse with axe or fire and still spring up repeatedly and per- 
sistently for years. 

The Use of Sheep on Sprouts. — On sprouting brush, there is, 
perhaps, no cheaper or more effective means of repression than 
sheep and goats. They are used after the top growth is cleared 
away instead of grubbing, if one can wait, for by their persistent 
cutting down of growth, many small stumps and roots will decay 
enough in a year or two to be plowed out with a strong team and 
plow. 



PREPARING LAND FOR FRUIT 



67 



Burning of the Debris. — However the trees and underbrush 
may be wrenched from the soil, fire is the final cleaner. Where 
trees are to be worked up into fire-wood, it should be done as soon 
as they are felled, for the work is much less than after they become 
dry- and hard. If it is not designed to break the land the first 
winter, the wood is left to season and it becomes lighter and easier 
to handle. The brush and roots, if no use is to be made of them, 
can be left to lie on the clearing to dry out during the following- 
summer, and after the first rains of the following fall the whole 
area can be burned over. Such stumps as do not burn with the 
brush must be gathered in piles and re-fired. Burning before the 
first rain should not be attempted, unless it be in exceptional situa- 
tions, because of the danger of communicating fire to the surround- 
ing country, which is a standing danger in our dry climate. Under 
the present law it becomes necessary to secure permission from the 
State Forester at Sacramento before starting field fires m the dry 
season. After the rain, clean up the ground perfectly. 

First Crop on a Clearing. — It is the opinion of some clearers 
in the redwood region that the soil is not fit for fruit trees the first 
year after the original growth is removed, and they grow a field 
crop the first year. They claim that peas are the best corrective 
of "redwood poisoning," and fortunately in the upper redwood dis- 
trict they have a climate well suited to the pea. Whether their 
theory is right or not, their practice is of advantage, because they 
get a better cultivation and aeration of the soil, and kill out much 
of the sprouting from the old roots, which is usually quite per- 
sistent in the moister parts of the State. Usually the tree and vine 
planter is in such haste to realize from his labor that he does not 
allow the first year to go for any side issue. 

Surface Leveling and Draining. — There is often occasion to 
clear the land of stone and rocks. The latter should be blasted out 
of the way so that the land may be clear for the plow and culti- 
vator. Once in a while one will come upon a stone wall inclosing 
an orchard in this State, as trim and true a wall as the most thrifty 
New England farmer can boast, but walls are not common. Our 
valley orchard lands are, as a rule, naturally as free from stone 
as they are from underbrush, but on the hills it is different. Prob 
ably the best way to dispose of much of the stone is to dig trenches 
in the natural water runs, put in stone, cover with small brush, 
and then with soil deep enough so the plow will not reach the 
brush. This disposes of the stone for all time, and at the same 
time helps to drain the soil. Concerning other treatment of the 
land after the rubbish is removed, P. W. Butler writes as follows : 

When water runs are wide, lateral ditches should be cut extending 
entirely through the moist areas. If during the rainy season a run is 
likely to have more water than can be conveyed properly through a 



68 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



covered trench, it should be left open and graded -so that a team can cross 
it, and for fifteen feet on each side sow to red-top. In this way the land 
can be utilized that would be worthless for trees, and the red-top, that 
can be grown at a profit, will take the place of unsightly weeds, that would 
otherwise grow at the point that can not be cultivated. 

To distribute the work more evenly through the first year buildings 
can be erected, a well dug, and the trenching done in the dry season, while 
all the grubbing, leveling, plowing and planting must be done the follow- 
ing season, as soon as the ground is sufficiently moistened. All depres- 
sions where water would stand should be filled, and all flat places should 
be graded until w^ater will readily flow off, and not be retained so near the 
surface of the ground as to cause it to become soured. This leveling can 
be best done by one man and a pair of horses. Plow the adjacent elevated 
land and scrape into the places to be filled. The land is now ready for 
plowing and should be done thoroughly, subsoiling to as great a depth as 
the removal of the stumps will allow. It is now well to go over the 
ground again with the scraper and level all the most elevated points so 
they can be readily reached by water in irrigating. Then cross-plow as 
deeply as possible without again subsoiling, harrow and drag, and the 
ground will be ready to plant. 

Mr. Butler writes with reference to the foot-hills of the Sierra 
Nevada, where irrigation must be practised. Where irrigation is 
not used, leveHng, or rather grading, may be unnecessary, but it is 
often quite desirable that there may be no depressions to retain 
surplus water. The life of the trees and ease of cultivation may 
demand this unless the soil should be light and deep enough to 
allow free drainage. 



CHAPTER VIII 
NURSERY OPERATIONS 

California nursery stock is unrivaled in growth, health, and 
vigor. This is the verdict of all the visiting horticulturists, and has 
been formally declared by the victories of California tree growers 
at the World's Fairs held in this country, where the highest 
premiums were awarded to, Californians in nearly all classes in 
which they exhibited since 1885. 

The quality of the trees which can be purchased at our nurseries, 
and the very reasonable rates at which they are sold, make it little 
worth while for the orchard planter to try to grow his own trees. 
In fact, the investment called for to purchase a good assortment 
of well-grown trees will be one of the best which the orchard 
planter can make. The professional grower, if he is honest and 
enterprising, can give the purchaser the advantage of his experi- 
ence and skill in the choice of stocks suited to his soil, varieties 
of fruit adapted to his situation, and be of assistance to him in 
other ways connected with his enterprise ; and such helps to an 
inexperienced planter or to a newcomer are very valuable. There 
may be, however, some reader who is distant from established nur- 
series, or possessed of limited means, who may like to use his 
spare time in growing his own trees, and to such suggestions are 
offered. There will, however, be very much which can be learned 
only by actual experience. 

In the selection of location for a commercial nursery there are 
matters involved which it is not proposed to discuss. Attention 
will be paid rather to matters connected with what may be called 
a farm nursery. The first point will be the selection of a small 
piece of ground which offers proper soil, exposure, and, in some 
parts of the State, facilities for irrigation. 

Proper Soil for Nursery. — The soil should be a mellow loam, 
easy of cultivation and not disposed to crust and crack. In all 
respects what one would choose as a rich, kind garden soil will 
answer well for the nursery. The soil should be moist, but thor- 
oughly drained, either naturally or artificially, for time and labor 
will be largely wasted on a water-logged soil. In this respect a 
soil which might yield fair crops of some shallow-rooimg vege- 
tables would not always be suitable for young trees, which, to do 
well, must have favorable conditions to send the roots to consider- 
able depth. Good spots are often found in the rich loam along the 
banks of creeks, as in such situations one finds generally a deep 
alluvium, well drained by the creek. But such situations, if liable 

69 



70 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



to overflow, should be rejected because standing water is not good 
for trees, and because the soil will be apt to be soaked with water 
and inaccessible just at the time when the trees should be lifted for 
transplanting to orchard. 

It is not always possible to find an ideal nursery spot on every 
ranch, but still trees may be well grown on less favorable places 
if attention is given to correcting natural defects. For example, 
if the soil be naturally heavy, it may be improved somewhat by 
repeated plowing and cultivation during the year before starting 
the trees. If it be an adobe, its mechanical condition may be 
greatly improved by the application of a top dressing of lime at the 
rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds of lime to the acre. 
For this purpose "lime waste," which contains both lime and wood 
ashes, can be had cheaply at the kilns. Old plaster which may 
have been left from house repairs is excellent. Even builders' 
lime would not be very expensive, for but little would be required 
for so small a plot of land as a farm nursery would need to cover. 
The lime will increase the amount of plant food in a heavy soil as 
well as render it more friable. Another way in which a small area 
of heavy soil may be improved is by the addition of sand. A few 
loads of sand, if it can be had near by, will remove the tendency 
to crack', and will act as mulch to prevent evaporation of moisture. 
If the soil be very loose and subject to too rapid drying out, the 
remedy will be moderate irrigation during the summer, but it 
should cease early enough to allow the young trees to ripen their 
wood before the frosts of autumn. Mulches of various light, fine 
materials, rotted straw and the like, may be used to advantage 
among the young seedlings in preventing drying out of the soil, 
if the plot is to be hand-worked, but such materials are apt to be 
in the way of neat, thorough work with the horse. A mulch of 
sand, if available, is not open to this objection. 

In choosing soil for a nursery, a piece of land which has been 
in cultivation for garden or field crops is to be preferred over a 
newly-cleared piece. It is often the case that soil from which old 
stumps or shoots have recently been removed has become soured 
from the processes of decay in the dead wood. Although the de- 
posits of humus from decay of woody fiber tends to enrich the soil, 
afterwards certain acids are formed if the land lies without culti- 
vation. These are not favorable to the growth of young roots, 
and a crop to which as much time is given as a crop of young trees, 
should not be placed upon it. This evil quality in the soil is 
removed by cultivation and aeration, or may be corrected by the 
application of lime. This state of soil is most complained of m 
connection with old stumps and roots of oak trees. 

Situation and Exposure. — Warmth in the soil is necessary to a 
good growth, and a good year's growth is essential to the pro- 



PREPARATION OF NURSERY GROUND 'J I 

duction to a satisfactory tree. Drainage contributes notably to 
the warmth of the soil. Exposure is also of importance. Plenty 
of sunshine and protection from cold winds are to be secured. 
wSometimes a little elevation is desirable. It would be a serious 
mistake to seek moist, low land if the piece lies at the bottom of a 
little valley or depression where the cold air settles during the 
night and frosts are frequent. In such cases choose higher ground. 
Of course, in broad, open valleys there is not this objection, for 
such seasonable frosts as may be expected there are not injurious 
to deciduous nursery stock. The greatest nurseries in the State 
are m the open valleys, not on the lowest ground, however, in all 
cases, but on what would be called good, rich valley land. There 
are, however, situations in the thermal belts in which the tempera- 
ture does not fall low enough to check growth of deciduous trees 
and cause the leaves to drop. In such cases it has been found de- 
sirable to select lower and colder ground for the nursery of 
deciduous trees. 

Preparation or Nursery Ground. — The best preparation for nur- 
sery ground is the growth, the previous season, of a cultivated or 
hoed crop. This will secure frequent working of the soil, thorough 
pulverization of the clods, etc. The produce of the hoed crop 
should thus pay the cost of putting the land in good condition, at 
least. Where the retention of moisture is an object, as it really is 
in some parts of the State where the annual rainfall is sometimes 
small and no facilities for irrigation provided, it will perhaps pay 
better in the end to keep the land in bare fallow during the previous 
summer; but there must be frequent and thorough cultivation, 
keeping the surface always mellow, or more moisture will be lost 
by evaporation than a hoed crop would require for its growth. 
Properly cultivated fallow soil will have moisture within a few 
inches of the surface, while unworked soil adjoining will be baked 
hard and dry to a depth of several feet. During the winter imme- 
diately preceding planting, the green stuff should be allowed to 
grow for a time, but should be plowed under before it gets high 
enough to interfere with perfect turning of smooth furrows. The 
decay of this green crop is of advantage to the soil. Another plow- 
ing in the spring, and a thorough harrowing, will leave the ground 
in good condition to receive the pits or root grafts, as the case 
may be. In this plowing for nursery there should be deep work 
done and subsoiling, as will be more fully set forth under the head 
of preparing land for orchard, to which the reader is referred. 

Growth of Seedlings for the Nursery. — The two chief ways of 
producing fruit trees are, first, from seedlings grown on the spot; 
second, from buds and root grafts upon stock imported from the 
East or from abroad. First, as to the growth of seedlings : 

It is usual to take seeds from sources where they can be collected 



72 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



with the least trouble. Apple seeds are washed out from the 
pomace of the cider press ; apples and pears from the coring and 
peelings of canneries and drying establishments; pits of the stone 
fruits are derived from the same source. Supplies can usually be 
purchased from such establishments at a moderate cost. The 
trouble is that from such supplies one is apt to get seeds and pits 
from all varieties, possessing different degrees of health and vigor. 
There is just as much to be gained from selecting the seed from 
which to grow good strong stocks for fruit trees as there is in 
selecting good garden or field seed. One can generally get good 
peach pits, for it is easy to have the order filled when the cann'ery 
is running on strong-growing yellow varieties, for these are believed 
to be most vigorous, and yet some claim much preference for pits 
from vigorous seedling trees, and make extra efforts to secure 
them. Wherever it is possible, and if one is only to produce a 
small lot of trees, it is practicable to select from the fruit the seeds 
for planting. Not only is there great difference in the strength 
of different varieties, but in dividual trees vary greatly. If one is 
taking seed from an old orchard to start his nursery with, he can 
take pains to get his seed from his strongest trees, and thus secure 
also that which is probably best adapted to his locality. 

Apple and Pear Seedlings. — For a small lot of apple and pear 
trees the seed can be best sown in boxes. Select plump pips and 
keep in moist sand, from the time they are taken from the fruit 
until sowing. Fill the boxes, which should be there or four inches 
deep, with good garden mold, cover the seed about half an inch, 
and then cover the soil lightly with chaff or fine straw to prevent 
the surface from drying out. Be sure that the boxes have cracks 
or holes in the bottom for drainage, and the whole is kept moist 
but not wet. When the seedlings have grown to the height ot 
three inches, they can be set out in the nursery rows as one would 
set out cabbage plants. 

Cherry Seedlings. — There are different ways of handling pits 
of stone fruits to prepare them for setting out in open ground, 
which will be described. The cherry is grown from pits of two 
wild varieties; one is commonly called the "Black Mazzard." It 
is the common wild cherry of the East, and is the original type ot 
what are known as the Heart and Bigarreau types of cherries. 
The other is the "Mahaleb," a European wild species, which is 
used in the East, where it thrives better than the Mazzard, as it is 
hardier stock. In this State the Mahaleb does not seem to have 
much dwarfing effect, as trees on that stock in this State over 
twenty-five 3^ears old are twenty-five inches in diameter of trunk. 
The Mahaleb, howet^er, ripens its wood earlier, and for this reason 
may be valuable in the colder parts of the State. It is also freer 
Irom root trouble by extremes of wetness and drouth in the soil 



GROWING SEEDLINGS FROM PITS 73 

and is largely used on low lands. The Mazzard is, however, chiefly 
used in California. Cherry stones are sometimes taken from the 
fully-ripened fruit, dried for two or three days, the stones cracked 
carefully and planted at once in good soil and kept properly moist. 
They will germinate soon and make a growth of a foot or so the 
first season. Such stocks are taken up for grafting in the winter 
and set out in nursery row the next spring. A better way of treat- 
ing cherry is that given by W. W. Smith, of Vacaville : 

The fruit of the Mazzard should be allowed to get perfectly ripe on 
the tree, then gathered and let lie in a heap for three or four days, so that 
they may be partially or wholly freed from the pulp by washing them in 
water. They should then be spread out in the shade and stirred frequently- 
for about twenty-four hours. This will give the outside of the pit time to 
dry sufficiently to prevent molding, while the kernel itself will remain 
fresh and green. They should then be placed in moist (not wet) sand 
and kept so until the rains set in in the fall, when they can be planted in 
drills, in good, rich, mellow soil prepared the previous spring and kept 
clean of weeds through the summer, ready for the purpose. They should 
never be allowed to get perfectly dry; and the reason for it is that we have 
but little or no freezing and thawing weather in this country to cause the 
pits to open; but if they are kept constantly moist it answers the same 
purpose as freezing. The seeds of the Mahaleb cherry will sprout with 
less difficulty, but the same rules for keeping the Mazzards will apply to 
them. 

Other stock for the cherry will be discussed in the chapter on 
that fruit. 

Citrus Fruits. — The propagation of citrus fruits will be de- 
scribed in detail in Chapters XXXII, XXXIII and XXXIV. 

The Larger Stone Fruits. — In handling pits of the larger stone 
fruits, apricot, peach, plum, etc., the chief requisite is to prevent 
drying and great hardening of the pit. Some plant in the fall and 
trust to natural conditions to start the seedling in the spring, but 
this interferes with the cultivation of the ground, and leaves the 
seedling to grow in soil which has perhaps been puddled by heavy 
winter rains. There must also be much hand work done to clear 
the rows from weeds. It is much better to keep the pits from 
drying by covering with sand moderately moist, hasten the sprout- 
ing by appropriate treatment towards spring, and then plant out 
in thoroughly prepared soil, and they will make a satisfactory 
growth. The following method, by D. J. Parmele, of Vacaville, 
has given good results : 

Keep the pits out of the sun until the rains commence in the fall, then 
put them into a box about a foot deep with openings at the bottom for 
drainage, and scatter sand or fine earth through them, putting about two 
inches on top, and place them under the eaves of a building on the south 
side, where they will get well soaked every time it rains. If there should 
be a long dry spell during the winter, water them a little. About March 
they will open and sprout. Then take a plow and open a deep furrow in 
loose, mellow ground, and, with a hoe, pull about two-thirds of the dirt 
back into the furrow, breaking the clods, and making it fine, the same as 
you would if you expected to plant onion seed there. Drop the sprouted 
pits in straight line, and cover two inches. On account of the extra work 
in preparing the ground, the trees will be large enough to bud in July. 



74 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Another way is to spread out the pits on a smooth piece of 
ground and cover with sacks, and over these a layer of straw three 
or four inches thick to retain moisture. The pits may be planted 
out as soOn as they crack open, although no harm will be done if 
they are allowed to lie until the sprouts are well out. 

Another method which has been especially recommended for 
treatment for almonds is the following : Lay boards upon the 
ground and cover them with an inch of sand ; spread on this a 
layer of almonds and then another inch of sand, and bo on. Keep 
the pile wet, and in three weeks of warm weather they will burst 
open. Plant in drills one inch deep and put over them a light coat 
of rotten straw. 

If from any cause the pits have become quite dry, they should 
be soaked in water two or three days before planting. 

Nut Tree Seedlings. — In growing nut-tree seedlings, much the 
same methods are followed as with pits of stone fruits. There are 
methods described in detail by California growers which should be 
given. As has been said, the nuts may be planted at any time 
after ripening, in the milder parts of the State, if the grower 
will undertake the greater care and cultivation. On some light 
soils where the rainfall is not excessive, this is not much trouble. 
Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, giyes this as his method : 

The nuts may be planted as soon as gathered, though in Nevada City 
it is too cold to plant them in the fall, for the frost in winter would surely 
lift the nuts right out of the ground. For keeping and sprouting walnuts, 
I throw into the bottom of a box one inch deep of sand, then a layer of 
nuts; put in another inch of sand, and another layer of nuts, and so on to 
one or two inches from the top. Then water well with a sprinkler and 
water again during the winter whenever the sand gets too dry. The sand 
has to be pretty well saturated with water, especially from the first of 
January down to planting time, which is in February, March, or April, 
according to localities. The latter part of March or first week in April is 
best for Nevada City. The nuts are planted in drills and covered to a 
depth of two to three inches. 

In propagating chestnuts it is always better to select for seed the 
largest, finest, and healthiest nuts; in the fall or beginning of winter the 
nuts have to be planted in a box of damp sand, by layers, the box being 
kept in a cellar. The nuts may be stored in a hole in the open ground, a 
layer of chestnut leaves being first thrown in the bottom of the hole, on 
top of that a layer of nuts, then another layer of leaves, and so on to the 
top, which has to be properly covered with two or three inches of earth 
so as to prevent the frost injuring the nuts. In February or March, 
according to location, the nuts are taken out and planted in drills to a 
depth of three to four inches; less for smaller seed like American chest- 
nuts. 

In growing seedlings of English walnuts, Mr. J. Luther Bowers 
of Santa Clara has shown that water-soaking of nuts may make 
it unnecessary to undertake storage in damp sand, if the nuts are 
of the last crop. He describes the method as follows : 

"The nuts should be large and thin shelled and should be of last year's 
crop. To ascertain this, break a few and split the kernel open at the germ 
end, or the point where the root starts. If the meat of the kernel shows a 



HOW THE WALNUT SEEDLING STARTS 



75 







to 



70 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

clear color they are of last year's crop, but if the flesh shows any dis- 
coloration they are old and will not germinate. I have often got hold of 
•d lot that were mixed, old and new together. Never risk a lot of this kind, 
for failure will follow. After the nuts have been selected place them in 
some kind of tin vessel; a five-gallon oil can, with the top removed, is just 
the thing. Then cover them with hot water at not over iio degrees F. 
Let them remain in this water for 24 hours and plant at once, keeping 
them in the M^ater all the time. Do not let them become the least bit dry, 
and be sure the soil is moist, and put every nut in with the sharp point 
exactly straight down. The root starts from this point and will go 
straight down, and if not molested will the first year be about three times 
the length of the top; that is, if the top grows one foot, the straight tap 
root will be three feet or more long, and will be from three-fourths to an 
inch thick where it grew out of the nut, tapering both up and down." 

Imported Seedlings. — A very large proportion of some kinds 
of the cherry, pear and apple trees produced in this State are 
worked upon imported seedling stocks. These stocks are cheap, 
convenient to handle, and are therefore popular. It is easy enough 
to grow peach, almond, apricot, and Myrobalan seedlings, but small 
seeds, like apple and pear, often do not show up well in the spring, 
especiall}^ if the soil is of a kind that crusts over with rain and 
sunshine. Therefore our nurserymen import these seedlings in 
the winter, plant them out, as has already been described, and bud 
in the following summer, grafting the next spring where the buds 
fail. If the seedlings are large when received, they are often root- 
grafted at once, and then one summer in the nursery gives a tree 
suitable for planting out. These stocks are of better budding size 
during their first summer than California seedlings, which are apt 
to overgrow. 

M3^robalan plum seedlings were formerly imported to a large 
extent, but are now chiefly home-grown, and seedlings are used 
instead of cuttings, which formerly were employed largely. This 
stock has secured great favor for plums and prunes, and in some 
situations, for the apricot, as it is hardier against extremes of 
drouth and moisture. 

Prof. Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, has discovered in Cali- 
fornia upon imported seedlings a serious root-fungus which kills 
all kinds of orchard trees in Europe, and he advises the use of 
home-grown seedlings to escape this danger. 

Fruit Trees from Cuttings. — It is feasible to grow a number of 
kinds of fruit trees from cuttings, but it is not desirable in many 
cases to do it. Trees grown from a graft or bud in a seedling root 
are much better. The root system of a seedling is naturally 
stronger and more symmetrical. The roots from a cutting start 
out at the boitom and spread out horizontally and irregularly. 
This style of a root system is expressively named "duck-foot roots," 
and they do not give the tree a deep, strong hold on the soil. Trees 
can, however, be multiplied very fast from cuttings. Notable in- 
stances of this are the Myrobalan plum and the Leconte pear. 
Cuttings of deciduous trees should be taken from well-matured 



PLANTING SEEDLINGS IN NURSERY 77 

wood of the previous season's growth, and planted in rows and in 
well-prepared soil, as has already been described for the sowing 
of fruit tree seeds. The cuttings should be taken before the sap 
begins running in the winter. A cuttings about ten inches long, 
four-fifths of its length buried in the ground, will answer. Be 
sure that the ground is firmed well at the base of the cutting, but 
keep the surface loose. Small wood is better than large, though, 
of course, the extreme ends of twigs should be rejected usually. 
Cultivation of cuttings is the same as that of seedlings, and bud- 
ding, when the cuttings are to be used as stocks, is also governed 
by the same rules. 

The orange and lemon can be grown from cuttings, but the 
work is done during the summer while the ground is warm. Cut 
from wood one or two years old ; set in open ground with partial 
shade and give plenty of water (dry ground is death to their tender 
roots), but be sure that there is free escape for surplus water. 
Cuttings started in the warm weather and given partial shade and 
plenty of irrigation are very apt to succeed. This method of grow- 
ing these fruits is not, however, in wide use or favor. 

The propagation of the grape, olive and fig from cuttings will 
be considered in the chapters on those fruits. 

Planting Out in Nursery. — For planting out in nursery, the 
term, "spring" is given as the proper time, but in California it must 
be remembered that spring is not any definite division of the year. 
"Spring weather" comes from the first of February to the first of 
May, according to the latitude or elevation or exposure resulting 
from local topography. Cherries may be ripe in Vaca Valley 
before fruit trees put out leaves in Modoc county ; and between 
these extremes there are advents of spring in other places accord- 
ing to the situation. These facts are more fully set forth in the 
chapter on climate. Spring must be detected in the behavior of 
vegetation and not by the calendar. When the tree buds swell and 
the leaves appear, spring has come for that locality. But whether 
one can plant his nursery then or not will depend upon the char- 
acter of the soil and the condition of the rainfall for that season. 
This varies much from year to year. As a rule, however, in most 
parts where fruit is grown at present in large quantities, the heavy 
cold rains will be over by the first of February, and then nursery 
operations can commence if the soil is in good condition. If not, 
the planter must wait until the soil is dry enough to work 
nicely. There will, of course, be heavy rains after the first of 
February; but they will only necessitate cultivation to loosen the 
soil, if the nursery ground is well situated for drainage, and if it 
is not it should not be used for this purpose. 

Supposing the ground has been deeply plowed and thoroughly 
harrowed, as has been already described, the laying out of the 



yo CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

ground is the next operation. Everything should be done with a 
view to the use of the horse in cultivation. The rows should be 
laid out as straight as possible. Some use a plow furrow ; some an 
arrangement like a corn-marker, with two cultivator teeth set four 
feet apart; some stretch a line, to get the pits or root grafts as 
true to it as possible, and some trust to the furrow for straightness. 
No rule can be laid down for means to be employed; the result 
must depend upon the eye and skill of the individual. Some people 
can hardly shoot a straight line with a gun. Each must do the 
best he can in this respect. 

There is difference in practice as to distance between the rows 
in nursery. The usual distance is four feet, but others claim that 
it is better to make the rows six feet apart, especially where no 
irrigation is practiced, as this gives the young trees more room, 
and if the ground is kept thoroughly cultivated, as it should be, 
it gives the roots a greater supply of moisture to draw upon. In 
growing a small lot of trees, where there is plenty of land, it is, of 
course, desirable to give them every advantage in the way of 
facilities for growth, but on the other hand, an overgrown tree is 
not desirable. Thrift and strength must be sought rather than size. 

At the ends of the rows spaces of about twelve feet should be 
left as turning-ground for the horse when cultivating, and as a 
roadway. The length of nursery rows depends upon the taste of 
the grower. It is convenient to have alleys wide enough for a 
horse and cart at intervals of one hundred to three hundred feet, 
but in small nurseries the head-lands would probably give all the 
access required. 

The depth for planting seeds and pits must be regulated by 
the size of the seed and the character of the soil, as is always laid 
down by the authorities, and in this State another condition must 
be made, and that is the climate or weather conditions prevailing 
in the locality. Where the rainfall is generally light and the soil 
loose, seed must be planted deeper than where good spring showers 
are to be expected. In fine soils seeds must be planted shallower 
than in coarse, even with the same rainfall. Judgment and experi- 
ence must dictate in this matter, and if a man has no experience, 
he is pretty apt to get it. 

During the spring months the cultivator must be used as often 
as may be required to keep the weeds from getting too high, or the 
soil from becoming to densely packed by heavy rains, but the 
ground should never be worked when too wet. It requires some 
watchfulness and promptitude to use the cultivator just at the right 
time. 

Nursery Irrigation. — In parts of the State where the rainfall 
is adequate, cultivation thorough, the soil sufficiently retentive, 
and atmospheric conditions favorable, the seedling will make its 



USE OF WATER IN THE NURSERY ';^9 

growth without irrigation, and many nurseries are on ground not 
provided at all with irrigation facilities. In other parts of the State 
irrigation is necessary. Water should be applied sparingly, and 
yet enough to keep the seedling in healthy growing condition. This 
IS shown by the leaves, which should not drop or curl. Excessive irri- 
gation should be guarded against, because a soft, excessive growth 
is very undesirable. Water is a good thing, and in some cases a 
very necessary thing, but the use of it should be wisely regulated. 
At budding it is necessary that the sap should be free and the bark 
slip easily. To foster this condition it is sometimes desirable to 
give a watering a few days before budding commences. Water 
should be applied by running it through shallow furrows between 
the rows, and the cultivator should follow as soon as the ground is 
dry enough to work freely. 



CHAPTER IX 

BUDDING AND GRAFTING 

If the nursery ground has been well worked and the seed prop- 
erly handled, the growth of the seedling will be strong and rapid. 
If an early start was had and other conditions favorable, some 
kinds will be ready for budding in June, and the production of what 
are called "June buds," as will be described presently. In ordinary 
practice, however, budding will come later, and the budding season 
extends from July to October. The weight of the budding of 
deciduous trees is generally done in August and September. 

BUDDING 

The process of budding, as employed on all the common fruit 
trees, is very simple. It consists in lifting the bark and inserting 
a bud from another tree in such a way that the inner bark of the 
bud shall come in contact with the layer of growing wood in the 
stock, and then it will be quickly knit to it by the new cell-growth 
if the bark is closed around the inserted bud closely enough to 
prevent the air from drying the two surfaces at the point of contact. 

In the engraving 1 is the cutting or "bud stick" from the tree 
of the kind into which it is desired to transform the seedling. This 
cutting is usually made from the growth of the present season, 
which has well-formed buds at the axils of the leaves, although 
in some cases older dormant buds may be used, as will appear in 
the discussions of the different fruits. If buds are desired to 
mature early, pinch off the ends of the growing shoots from which 
they are to be taken. Suckers and so-called "water sprouts" should 
not be used, but rather well-formed wood from the branches of 
the tree. It is requisite that the buds be taken from a vigorous, 
healthy tree of the variety desired. Bud sticks can be carried or 
sent considerable distances if packed in damp moss or other mate- 
rial to prevent drying, but care must be taken not to enclose too 
much water or decay will be promoted. Fresh shoots in tight tin 
boxes without wet packing are safer and carry very long distances. 
Sealing the ends with grafting wax is also a good precaution 
against drying out. 

Budding knives can be bought at all seed stores and cutlery 
establishments. They have a thin, round-ended blade at one end 
of the handle, and at the other end the bone is thinned down, or a 
bone blade inserted. The former is for cutting and the latter for 
lifting the bark of the stock into which the bud is to be placed. 
Armed with a bud stick and such a knife, the "budder" starts in 

80 



BUDDING FRUIT TREES 



81 



upon a row of seedlings. Bending the seedling over a little and 
holding it between his left arm and his left leg, he reaches down 
for a smooth place on the bark as near the ground as convenient 
to work, and makes a horizontal cut, and from that a perpendicular 
cut downwards towards the roots, as shown at 3, in the engraving, 
with the bark slightly lifted and ready for the insertion of the bud. 
Next he cuts from his bud stick a bud, as shown at 2. This carries 
with it, on the back, a small portion of the wood of the bud stick 
as well as the bud and bark. It was once claimed that this wood 
should be carefully dug out, but in budding most kinds of trees it 
is not necessary; in fact it may be better to leave it in; such at 
any rate is the general practice. The point of the bud is now 
inserted at the opening at the top of the slit in the bark of the 
stock and pushed down into place, as shown in figure 5. To handle 
the bud the part of the leaf stem which is left on is of material 
assistance. Nothing remains now but to apply the ligature which 
is to hold down the bark around the bud. .- ,. , 

There are various ways of tying in the bud. Any way will do 
which holds down the bark closely, but not too tightly. Different 
materials are also used, soft cotton twine, stocking yarn, strips of 
cotton cloth, candle wicking, etc. The last-named is perhaps the 
best material, on all accounts, although strips of cheap calico bear 
evenly upon the bark and do very good work. The use of twine 
is speedy, but the strands bearing upon a narrow surface, and not 
being elastic, they are apt to do injury by cutting into the bark 
unless carefully watched and loosened. The fiber from basswood 
bark was formerly largely used, but has given place to the other 
materials named, which are more handily obtained. The buds must 
be examined about a week or ten days after insertion, and the lig- 
ature loosened, for otherwise it will cut into the rapidly-growing 
stock. Sometimes trees are badly injured by neglect in this 
particular. 

In making June buds, where immediate growth of the bud is 
desired, some growers make a hard knot with the cord around the 
stock, above the bud, and then use the loose ends to tie the bud. 
When the binding around the bud is loosened, the hard knot 
remains on the stock, girdles it, and forces the sap into the bud. 
Thin wire, known to nurserymen as "label wire," is also used for 
this purpose. 

In going through the nursery row, all seedlings which are 
large enough are budded at once. In going through the row again 
to look to the bands, if the bud is seen to be fresh looking, it is 
considered to have "taken." In stocks where the first bud has 
dried up, another is inserted lower down. Sometimes seedlings 
which were too small to hold a bud at the first working over are 
given a bud later in the season, or left for taking up for root graft- 
ing in the winter. 



82 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



i 





I A stick of bud wood. 2 Cutting the bud. 3 Vertical incision. 




7 Waxed cloth ready 8 Waxed cloth tightly 

for twisting, twisted. 9 Bud staked and tied. 



GRAFTING FRUIT TREES 



83 



In nursery practice the biidder does not stop to tie his buds, 
but is followed in the row by another man, who carries the tying 
material, and does this part of the work. 

The common method of budding thus described is used on all 
common orchard fruits. Special styles of budding for special fruits 
will be described in the chapters treating of those fruits. 

Usually the budded trees are allowed to stand in the nursery 
row with no other treatment that year than the insertion and care 
of the bud, the latter remaining dormant until the next spring. 
Then, as soon as the sap begins to swell the buds on the stock, the 
top is cut off down to about two inches above the bud, and all 
growth is kept off except that of the inserted bud. When that has 
grown out about twelve inches, the stub is cut off to about three- 
quarters of an inch or less from the bud, and the wood is quickly 
grown over by the bark. As there are apt to be dormant buds on 
the stock below the inserted bud, the trees have to be examined 
from time to time, and all such suckers removed. This is the com- 
mon practice with budded trees. Exceptions will be noticed pres- 
ently in connection with definitions of different kinds of trees 
known to the trade. 

Spring Budding. — What has been said in reference to budding 
applies to the use of dormant buds. It is also possible to work 
with what is called a ''pushing bud." This process, as described by 
a distinguished French authority, consists of retarding the growth 
of the buds on the scions by burying them in the ground until the 
sap it starting well in the stock in the spring, and then putting 
them in, trimming off the top of the stock so as to force the bud 
into growth. In this way the grower of a rare variety may secure 
trees for planting out the following winter, or he may secure a 
stock of buds for fall budding, and thus multiply his stock of a 
desirable variety very rapidly. A modification of this method con- 
sists in taking buds in the spring when they have grown out even 
half an inch, and inserting them by the usual method of lifting the 
bark, when the sap is flowing well in the stock. Then cut off 
about half the stock, so as not to give the bud too much sap at 
first, and afterward, when it is seen to have taken well, the balance 
of the stock is cut off near the bud. This method gives a tree 
the first season and saves a year over dormant budding. Shade 
and protection from dry wind are desirable. 

GRAFTING 

The next process of propagation to be considered is that by 
grafting. Its success as with budding, consists in bringing the 
growing wood (inner bark or alburnum) of the scion into contact 



84 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



with the same layer of the stock. It can be applied to any part 
of the tree, from the topmost branch to the lowest root, as is the 
case when new trees are made from scions and root fragments. 
Thus grafting pertains both to the production of young trees for 
planting out and to the transformation of old trees bearing worth- 
less fruit into producers of choice varieties. 

Grafting for the production of young trees is first in order. 
Instead of budding the seedling during the first summer of its 
growth, it may be allowed to complete its season's growth, and 
drop its leaves. When thus dormant the young trees are taken 
from the ground, the roots rinsed off with water if the ground is 
wet and sticky, or merely shaken free from clinging earth if in a 
dry time. Enough trees are dug at once to graft at a sitting. The 
grafting can be done at the work-bench in the tool-house or barn, 
and if one is pressed Avith other daylight work, it may be done by 
lamplight at the kitchen table, if the housewife can be conciliated 
for the muss it will make. 

Care of Scions. — The scions should be previously selected, and 
whether taken from trees on the place or brought from near or 
distant sources away from the farm, should have been placed as 
soon as procured in moist earth on the north side of the house or 
other building, where they will keep cool and damp until one is 
ready to use them. At the East and in parts of this State where the 
ground is apt to freeze, it is necessary to keep scions in the cellar 
with their butts covered with moist sand, but over most of the area 
of the State nothing more is needed than to put down in the earth 
at the base of a tree or on the north side of a building, with, per- 
haps, a box or barrel inverted over them to keep out mice and 
other intruders. Care must be taken not to let them dry up. If it 
is desirable for any reason to keep scions dormant long into the 
spring or summer, of course storage in a cool cellar is better, for 
in the open ground the scions will burst into leaf after a warm spell 
of spring weather. 

In selecting wood for scions, as for bud sticks, never take water 
shoots or suckers that start from the body of the tree and push up 
through the older branches, but always give the preference to 
sound, fully-matured wood, at the ends of the lower or nearly hori- 
zontal branches. Careful experiments have shown that trees 
grown from such scions are more likely to take on a low, spreading 
habit than those from the central or upper branches. The scions 
should be tied in bundles with a stout cord ; and a piece of a 
shingle, with the name of the variety written plainly and deeply 
thereon, should be tied in with each bundle. 

Grafting Wax. — In grafting, a good grafting wax is requisite. 
The ingredients are mixed in different proportions by different 



HOW TO MAKE GRAFTING WAX g5 

growers. A few recipes which are known to give good results are 
as follows : 

Two lbs. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin. 
Two and one-fourth lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; ^ of a lb. tallow. 
One lb. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin. 
Two lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; % lb. tallow, and a little linseed oil. 
Two lbs. resin; i lb. beeswax, 2^ lbs. linseed oil; 4 tablespoonfuls 
turpentine. 

One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; i pint linseed oil; i oz. lampblack. 
One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; i pint linseed oil; i pint flour. 

All these mixtures are made with the aid of gentle heat, and 
during grafting the wax must be kept warm enough to apply easily 
with a small brush. . To do this the wax dish may be kept on a 
hot brick, to be changed for a fresh one as it cools, or, better, still, 
is to heat the wax in an old fruit-can or something of that kind, 
inside another, which is partly full of warm water. A more capa- 
cious heater can be made by removing the top of a five-gallon oil 
can and making a hole for draft on one side near the bottom. A 
slow fire can be kept going to heat the wax pot which is suspended 
from a rod across the top. A wire handle makes this outfit porta- 
ble. The wax should not be so hot as to run too easily, but just 
right to spread well. 

Grafting is greatly facilitated by the use of strips of waxed 
cloth or waxed paper, the latter being quite good enough for grafts, 
which are low enough to be protected by a ground covering; also 
for root grafts. This waxed paper is made by spreading a thin coat 
of wax, with a brush, upon tough, thin wrapping paper, cutting up 
the paper, when cold, with a sharp knife, on a board, into strips 
about an inch wide. Waxed cloth is made by dipping cheap cotton 
cloth into hot wax, pulling the pieces between the edges of two 
boards to take out as much wax as possible, and when the cloth is 
cold, tearing it up into half-inch strips for small grafts or wider 
strips for larger grafts. When grafting is going on in-doors, these 
strips hanging near the stove are kept in good, soft condition for 
use. 

There are grafting preparations which do not require heating, 
but remain in a semi-fluid state, and then become very hard by 
contact with the air. The following is a popular French prep- 
aration : 

Melt one pound of resin over a gentle fire. Add to it one ounce of 
beef tallow, and stir it well. Take it from the fire, let it cool down a little, 
and then mix it with a tablespoonful of spirits of turpentine, and after that 
add about seven ounces of very strong alcohol. The alcohol cools it down 
so rapidly that it will be necessary to put it once more on the fire, stirring 
in constantly. Great care is necessary to avoid igniting the alcohol. 

This wax is easily prepared, and when well corked will keep 
for six months. It is put on the wounded part of the tree, very 



86 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



thin, and soon becomes as hard as stone. Thus it is valuable not 
only for grafting, but for covering the scars caused by removing 
limbs in pruning. When bench grafting is done by nurserymen, 
of course all appliances are arranged for the speediest work, and 
wonderful results are attained by one man and a helper, even as 
many as three thousand root grafts of apple in ten hours. We are, 
however, merely discussing home practices. 

Cleft Grafting. — Where various-sized stocks are to be used, as 
will be the case with a bunch of home-grown seedlings, different 
styles of grafting must be used. Where the stock is much larger 
than the scion, as is apt to be the case with California' seedlings, 
the cleft graft will be simplest. Cut off the top smoothly above the 
root crown and then split the top of the stock, as shown in the 
engraving. Then prepare the scion by whittling it to wedge-shape 
at the lower end. Open the slit in the stock with a little wedge and 
insert the scion so that its inner bark matches with the inner bark 
of the stock, something as shown in the second figure. It does not 
matter whether the outside of the scion is flush with the outside 
of the stock or not; the vital point is to get the growing layers, 
just inside the barks, in contact with each other, and, to be sure of 
this, it may be well to give the scion a slight diagonal pitch, for if 
the barks cross each other, this desirable contact is sure to be 
made. It is well to make the side of the wedge of the scion which 
goes nearer to the center of the stock a little thinner than the 
outside. 

A scion for a root graft is cut longer than for use in the top of 
the tree, for in planting, the point of grafting is placed a little 
way under-ground. Such scions are usually cut with four or five 
buds. After the scion is in place, it only remains to wrap it closely 
with a piece of the waxed cloth or paper, in such a way that all the 
cut surfaces are covered, extending the wrapper a little below the 
split in the root. Paint over the wrapper with warm wax put on 
with the brush, put a little on the top of the scion, and the graft is 
complete. 

Side Grafting. — Another method which prevents splitting the 
stock is the side graft, shown in the accompanying figure. It con- 
sists in bending the stock to one side and cutting in diagonally 
with a thin-bladed, sharp knife, a little more than half-way through 
the stock. Into this open cut insert the scion so that the inner 
barks touch; then allowing the stock to straighten up, holds the 
scion firmly. Covering with a wax band drawn tight makes a 
good job, and such grafts make as good growth as the buds set 
the previous summer. This method can be used with stems or 
branches up to an inch in diameter, and is essentially the same, as 
will be mentioned later, as a side graft for working over old trees. 
In this style of grafting, a stub of three inches or more may be left 



VARIOUS FORMS OP GRAFTING 



87 






Cleft Graft. 



Bark Graft. Wedge Graft. Saddle Graft. 





Whip Graft. 



Side Graft. 



88 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GRf)W THEM 



above the graft, and to this the graft can be tied to prevent blow- 
ing out if it makes a strong growth. Afterward the stub is cut 
back with a sloping cut and waxed or painted to prevent checking. 
Whip Grafting in the Stem. — Grafting above the root or in the 
stem of the stock when stock and scion are about the same size, is 
done by tongue or whip grafting. The accompanying sketch shows 
a whip graft in the stem of the stock. Grafts up to an inch in 
diameter can be made in this way, but it is generally used for 
smaller wood. Care must be taken to secure proper contacts of the 
inner barks at least on one side of the stock. After pushing the 
parts together, a wax band holds them firmly in place, or the joint 
may be simply tied and painted over with wax. 

A Root Graft. — When the root stock and the scion are about the 
same size, the tongue graft is also used, as shown in the figure. In 
making this both the stock and scion are given a sloping cut of 
about the same length, and a secondary cut made in each. When 
the two are put together, the wood "tongues in," or interlocks as 
shown in the engraving. The object of this is to make more points 
of contact for the inner barks of root and scion, and at the same 
time to interlock the two more firmly. In putting the two together, 
if the stock is slightly larger than the scion, be sure to put the 
scion so that the inner bark contact is made, and this will bring 
the scion a little to one side of the center. Bind with the wax band, 
and paint with wax as in the case of the former graft. 

In large nursery practice expert grafters have come of late 
years to make this root graft without wax, merely tying in the 
graft. For amateur work at home it is much safer to use the wax. 

Grafting in the root, where the root is much larger than the 
scion, may be done without splitting the root by cutting or sawing 
out a triangular piece on the side of the root, cutting the scion to fit 
and trusting to a strong band to hold it in place. This graft is illus- 
trated in the chapter on propagating the grape. It also works 
well with root grafting the walnut, and is used by some in ordinary 
top grafting on other trees. 

Planting out Root Grafts. — This root grafting can be done in 
the winter before it is time to plant out, and the grafts can be made 
a few at a time, as convenient. The grafts, then, as fast as pre- 
pared, should be bedded in moist sand in the cellar, and will make 
their contact firm, and even start to growing a little. In planting 
out in the nursery rows be sure the earth is firmed well around the 
root, otherwise many will be lost. Plant ten or twelve inches apart 
in the rows. Keep the weeds down and the soil well cultivated and 
loose on the surface, and the first season's growth will give a tree 
fit for planting out in orchard in the coming winter. For irrigation 
the rules already given for the growth of seedlings for budding 
will apply. 



KINDS OF NURSERY TREES 



PRUNING TREES IN NURSERY 



89 



As for other treatment of the trees (either from bud or root 
graft) in nursery during the first year, there is some difference of 
opinion and practice. If the young tree will be content to make 
a straight switch with good buds in the axils of the leaves, but no 
laterals thrown out, it will be in the best possible shape for planting 
in the orchard, and gives the planter a chance to make the head at 
whatever height suits him, and to secure uniformity through the 
orchard. All trees will not, however, be content with this growth, 
but will push out laterals all along the stem. Even in this case 
some let the whole growth go for the planter to treat as he thinks 
best. Another plan is to go over the nursery when the young stock 
is about two feet high and pinch back the laterals part way, but 
retaining the leaves nearest the stem to shade the stem. This 
pinching back is done from the ground up to a height of one to 
one and a half feet, and above that the growth is left to take its 
natural course, to be cut as desired when the head of the tree is 
formed. Pinching back develops buds near the stem and gives the 
planter a better chance to head the tree lower if he likes. Another 
practice which prevails to some extent, is to pinch off the terminal 
bud when the young tree has reached a height of about two and a 
half ar three feet in the nursery. This soon forces a growth of lat- 
eral branches, which are in turn pinched after they have grown out 
a couple of feet. The result is the formation of a head on a nursery 
tree the first year, and when such trees are planted in orchard they 
are merely cut back on the laterals, leaving the head as formed in 
the nursery. Such trees are difficult to handle in packing, and take 
much room in shipment. There may, however, be an advantage in 
such practice for the home grower if he is situated in parts of the 
State where the greatest season's growth is attained. Orchard 
planters generally, however, prefer a June bud or a yearling of 
moderate growth, without laterals. 

CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCKS 

The several classes of stock which are to be had from nurseries 
are as follows : 

Root Grafts. — These are seedling roots, or pieces of them, on 
which scions of the desired variety have been grafted on the bench 
and the junction healed over in the cellar. No growth has yet 
started in the scion. If the tree planter wishes this kind of stock, 
he should plant it out in nursery row in the spring and remove 
the trees to orchard the following winter. 

June Buds. — For multiplying varieties very fast, buds are kept 
dormant in a cool place ; or, by pinching off the top shoots of the 



90 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

current year are forced to mature buds very early. These buds 
art put into seedling stocks as early in the season as possible. After 
budding, the top of the stock is girdled with knife or cord, or partly 
cut away, and growth is forced on the bud so as to give a small 
tree at the end of the first summer. This method of propagation is 
growing in popularity in this State, especially in the foot-hill dis- 
tricts, where small trees are preferred for transplanting. 

Dormant Buds.— ^Trees are sold in dormant bud when they are 
lifted from the nursery and sent out before any growth has started 
on the inserted bud. The bud should be seen to be the color of 
healthy bark. Such trees should only be used when yearlings are 
not to be had and gain in time is very important. Care must be 
constantly taken that growth starts from the right bud, and that it 
be protected from breaking off by wind or animals. A considerable 
percentage of loss is usual and extra dormant buds should be 
planted in nursery row to fill vacancies. 

Yearling Trees. — These are trees which have made one season's 
growth from the bud or graft. Two-year-olds have made two 
seasons' growth, and so on. The proper way to count the life of 
a tree is from the starting of growth in the bud or graft, for this 
point is really the birth of the tree. 



WORKING OVER OLD TREES 

Another operation which may be properly considered as a 
branch of propagation is the working over of old trees. There is 
much of this being done every year in this State. The old seedling 
fruits in the older settled parts of the State are being made to bear 
improved varieties ; trees of varieties illy adapted to prevailing con- 
ditions are changed into strong growing and productive sorts ; trees 
are changed from one fruit to another, when affinity permits. This 
will be mentioned in the discussion of the different fruits. Still 
another reason for working over is to secure more valuable and 
marketable varieties. Sometimes a mixed orchard is made to bear 
a straight line of one sort which is in demand, or when the grower 
finds he has too many trees of a single kind, which give him more 
fruit than he can conveniently handle when it all ripens at one time, 
he works in other varieties so as to get a succession of varieties 
adapted to his purpose, and thus secures a longer working season 
in which to dispose of them. This is especially the case in large 
orchards of apricots, peaches, and plums, when the grower depends 
upon drying his crop. Information concerning the successive ripen- 
ing of varieties can be gained from the special chapters on the 
different fruits. For all of these reasons, and others which need not 
be enumerated, the work of the propagator is continually going on 



RENOVATING OLD TREES 



91 



even in our large bearing orchards. As with young trees, so with 
old, transforming the character of the tree is done both by budding 
and grafting. 

Budding Old Trees. — One way to, prepare an old tree for bud- 
ding is to cut back the branches severely during the latter part of 
the winter, which has the efifect of forcing out new shoots around 
the head of the tree, and in these the buds of the desired variety 
are set in the summer, just as is done in budding nursery stock, 
except that the budding should be done rather earlier because the 
sap does not run as late. When the shoots are budded, those being 
selected which are situated so as to give the best symmetry to the 
new head, the shoots not budded are broken a foot or so from 
where they emerge from the old wood, and are. allowed to hang 
until pruning-time. At the winter pruning the budded branches 
are topped ofif a little above the bud and when the new shoot starts 
it is often loosely tied to the stub of the old branch to prevent 
breaking out in the wind. When it gets strength, the stub is cut 
away smoothly to allow the wound to heal over. 

Another way is to insert the buds in the old bark at points 
where it is desirable to have the new branches start. This is some- 
times done by lifting the bark, as in ordinary budding, and slipping 
the bud under, sometimes by what is called shield or plate budding, 
which consists in removing a piece of the old bark entirely and 
putting in its place a piece of bark of the desired variety, having 
upon it a dormant bud. With plate budding it is necessary to be 
careful to have the inserted bark just the size of the bared spot, 
and to wrap it more closely than when the bud is slipped under 
the bark of the stock. In all cases in budding old trees, care must 
be taken to get fully-matured buds, and it is well to take them 
from large shoots, which have a thicker and firmer bark than may 
be used in budding nursery stock. It is also desirable to be very 
sure that the buds are taken not only from a tree of the desired 
valriety, but from a healthy, vigorous tree of that variety. 

In selecting buds, also, one must be sure that he gets leaf buds, 
and not fruit buds only. In taking buds from some kinds of bear- 
ing trees, of course, he may sometimes, to get well-ripened buds, be 
obliged to take both fruit and leaf buds together. This will work 
well if care is taken not to rub off the leaf bud. It is rather easier, 
however, to work with buds from young trees not yet in bearing 
if one can be sure that these trees are of the desired variety. 

Grafting Old Trees. — Old trees are also renewed by grafting. 
This is most generally done by the old process of "top grafting." 
The main stem or the larger branches are cut square off, and the 
scions, usually two, but four or more if in the trunk, are shaped and 
set into clefts in the stock as shown in the engraving. It is better 
to use limbs above the main fork, or head of the tree, than to graft 



92 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



in the trunk, if the old trees are of good size. The following de- 
scription, Avhich the writer borrows in part from some unknown 
source, will serve to guide novices in the matter : 

The outfit necessary for doing the work consists of a small, fine saw, 
a regular grafting knife, or a pocket-knife with a long, straight, sharp 
blade, wax, light mallet, and a hard-wood narrow wedge. After selecting 
the limb to be grafted, saw it off — your own judgment will guide you as 
to best point, but before the saw gets quite through the limb, cut the 
bark on the under side of the limb to prevent the liability of peeling down. 

Next split the stub with knife and mallet and insert the wedge in the 
center of the cleft to hold it open. It is usual to cut the scion with two 
buds, but sometimes better results are had by using scions with but a 
single bud. Whittle the scion wedge-shape, so that it fits nicely down into 
the cleft. To do this, hold it in the left hand with the bud at the ball of 
the thumb, then cut the side toward you; as will be natural, turn it over, 
and cut opposite side in the same way, making the wedge a very little 
thinner on the edge opposite the bud than the other. This will insure a 
firm pressure, at the points where the bark of scion and stock meet. 

When set, the bud of the scion will be on line with the outer long 
portion of the graft. The point to be closely observed in adjustment is to 
have the inner or sap bark of the scion connected with the same of the 
stock. If a trifle too far in, or too far out, the work will be a failure. 
Some people set the graft a little out at the top and a little in at the 
bottom, so as to be sure of a connection at the crossing-point, but there 
will be firmer hold if there is a union the whole length. Our rule has been 
to have the wood of the scion come exactly parallel with the surface of 
the stock, and we seldom fail in getting firm adhesions and solid limbs, 
after years of growth. 

After the scion are set, and two should be put into one limb if large, 
carefully withdraw the wedge and apply the wax, so that every part of the 
wood and bark cut and split is well coated. In doing this use extreme 
care not to move the scions at all from their sittings. If the pinch of the 
stock is seen to be severe, a small wedge may be left in the center to save 
the scions from crushing. If there is a large cleft, it may be filled with 
damp clay before waxing over. 

Most grafting over of old trees is done by this method, using 
one or another of the wax preparations described upon a preceding 
page. If the cut surface of the stock and the split is thoroughly 
waxed over as low as the bark is spilt, there is usually little trouble 
with the growth of the scion and the healing over of the stock. In 
the warmer valleys in the interior, the sun is often hot enough to 
melt the wax and cause it to run and bare the wood surfaces. This 
is prevented by dusting the wax thoroughly with brick-dust well 
powdered; but, by a little experimenting with the recipes already 
given, one can secure a wax which will stand any heat likely to be 
encountered. 

For grafting over trees by working upon the limbs, the neatest 
and surest work can be done by methods of grafting which do not 
require the splitting of the stock. There are various ways of doing 
this. One method is shown in the engraving on the next page, and 
consists in cutting the scion as shown, and inserting it beneath the 
raised bark and then binding well with waxed bands, the preparation 
of which has already been described. 



TIMES FOR GRAFTING 



93 



Another method is an application of what the French call oblique 
side grafting. It consists of making an oblique cut downward 
through the bark of the stock and for a distance into the wood, 
using a chisel and mallet or even a strong knife. A saw and knife 
are also used for making this cut, as well be described in the chapter 
on the peach. A small form of side graft has already been shown 
earlier in this chapter. In it the scion is held in with a wax band. 
Some growers remove the top of the stock with a sloping cut about 
half an inch above the scion, as shown in the engraving, and wrap 
the waxed band well around and over all the exposed surfaces. 
Others do not remove the whole of the limb until the scion has 
started well into growth, and then they cut down and pare the stock 
and cover with a band or with a wax that will not run in the sun. 

Several ingenious devices have been patented by Californians 
for securing uniformity in the incision in the stock and in shaping 
the scion, but it is so easy to succeed with ordinary tools that such 
inventions have never come into wide use. Machines for the bench 
grafting of vines have, however, been successfully employed to a 
certain extent, but are not generally used. 

TIMES FOR GRAFTING IN CALIFORNIA 

There is nothing particularly new about the methods or means 
employed for grafting deciduous fruit trees in California, but the 
time at which the operation can be successfully done, and the condi- 
tion of the scion, are different from those held to be necessary in 
other climates. It is not at all requisite that the scions should be 
carefully stored away to keep them in a dormant condition, nor 
that the grafter should haste to do his work in just such a state 
of sap-flow in the spring time. It was early discovered that graft- 
ing could be successfully done with growing scions, and that scions 
could be cut from one tree and set in another nearly at any time 
the grafter desired. Grafting is therefore possible much later iq 
the season than is prescribed elsewhere, and it is also possible to 
begin earlier. In one of the largest apple and pear orchards in the 
State it is common to graft in December. The absence of freezing 
weather saves the graft from injury. As our trees start their flow 
of sap early, and often when the ground is too wet for comfortable 
orchard work, it is the practice of many to get their grafting 
and pruning done before the heavy mid-winter rains begin. The 
practice of most growers is, however, to conform somewhat nearly 
to traditional methods, to do most of the grafting in the spring 
months, and to use dormant scions, the growth of which is retarded 
by heeling them in on the north side of a building, or keeping them 
in sand in the cellar, as the grower chooses. Of course it should be 
understood that there are parts of the State where the winter con- 
ditiofis are more nearly like those at the East, and practice has to 
conform to them. 



94 



CALIFORNIA FflUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



As to whether it is better to remove the whole top of the tree 
and graft all the limbs in one year, there is some difference of 
opinien. The prevailing practice is to graft over part of the limbs 
one year and the balance the following year; or else to leave part 
of the top to shade the bark and take part of the sap flow until 
the grafts start out well, and then cut it away. When a large 
amount of grafting is to be done, the limbs may be cut off during 
the weeks preceding grafting. In this case, the cut should be made 
a foot or two above the grafting point and a second cut be made at 
this point, when ready to put in the scions. 

Whenever old bark is exposed by cutting back for grafting, 
thorough protection against sunburn must be provided. The sim- 
plest way to do this is to cover the exposed bark with good white- 
wash. By using thirty pounds of lime, four pounds tallow, and five 
pounds of salt with enough water to make it flow well, a tenacious 
whitewash can be secured. 

What has been said thus far relates especially to the working 
over of old trees of common deciduous fruits. Though much the 
same method will succeed with some of the semi-tropical fruits and 
with nut trees, the discussion of their propagation and grafting over 
will be deferred to the chapters devoted to them, and this will also 
give opportunity to describe methods especially adapted to these 
fruits. 



CHAPTER X 
PREPARATION FOR ORCHARD PLANTING 

The two essentials in preparing land for trees or vines are deep 
and thorough cultivation, and provision for drainage, unless the 
situation is naturally well drained. Drainage will be considered in 
connection with irrigation in another chapter. In this place, how- 
ever, by way of emphasis, it may be remarked that high land is 
not necessarily well drained; although the general feature of the 
surface may be an incline, nor is low land necessarily wet, although 
the surface may be apparently level. For horticultural purposes 
the drainage of the land must be considered on the hillside as well 
as in the valley, for reasons which Avill be more fully set forth in 
the chapter on drainage. 

The preparation of land for fruit planting should begin with 
grading. In irrigated orchards this is essential for the equal distri- 
bution of water. Even where irrigation is not anticipated, it is of 
decided advantage to smooth down hummocks and fill sags which 
are likely to collect water in the rainy season. As has been shown 
in Chapter III, this can be done on most California soils without 
danger of uncovering a sterile subsoil. Some intimation of the 
method of grading is given at the close of Chapter VII. In prep- 
aration for the irrigated orchard, and irrigation is now widely 
employed even in regions where formerly rainfall was the sole reli- 
ance, it is important that accurate grading should be done and the 
use of the surveyor's level and grade stakes will be found very 
desirable. All moving of soil should precede the general plowing. 

For the planting of orchard or vineyard the land must be put in 
as good tilth as possible, and extra expenditure to secure this will 
be amply repaid in the after-growth of the trees and vines. If prac- 
ticable, it will be all the better to have the process of preparation 
begin a year before the trees or vines are to be set. This is true 
either with newly-cleared land, as has been described, or with old 
grain or pasture land which is to be used, leaving the surface rough 
during the winter, facilitates the access of air to the lower layers 
of the soil, and in a certain sense may be said to sweeten and enliven 
it. Following in the furrow with a sub-soil plow is very desirable, 
either at the first plowing or later. Such treatment of old grain 
land breaks up the old hard-pan,* which has probably been formed 



* In this connection the term means "plow-sole." Treatment of true hard- 
pan will be described in the next chapter. 

95 



96 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



by years of shallow culture. The preparation should continue dur- 
ing the following summer, and can often be made both thorough 
and profitable by the growth of a summer "hoed crop," the culture 
of which will kill out many weeds and secure good pulverization of 
the soil. If no summer crop is grown, the land should be kept in 
cultivation by plowing the weeds under as long as the surface soil 
retains moisture enough to start them. A special advantage of such 
summer-fallow in regions where the rainfall is apt to be short is 
that, prevention of evaporation, the trees or vines set the following 
winter will have a good part of the rainfall of two seasons to grow 
with, and the result will often be very noticeable. If there are sup- 
plies of manure available, as is often found in old corrals on oui 
grain or stock farms, it is better to gather and apply this the winter 
before the planting of the trees. If this work is not done, then it 
should be left until after the trees are planted, and then be spread 
upon the surface during the winter, and plowed in after it has been 
in part leached into the soil by the rains. Application should be 
made evenly all over the surface and not massed around the roots 
of the trees, unless it is to be applied as a mulch to the surface 
after the spring cultivation is over, as will be considered later. 

If it is thought desirable to plant the land immediately after 
breaking up, put in the plows as early in the fall as it is possible to 
do deep work, that is, to plow to a depth of ten or twelve inches, 
or more. Harrow thoroughly. If it is still early, cross-plow for 
fruit. Thorough and deep breaking up as soon as practicable to 
plow in the fall, and also deeply when the land pulverizes well, and 
follow in the furrow with the subsoil plow, working to a depth of 
fourteen inches or more. For this kind of work good teams are 
needed, and the plow should be sharp and bright. If the work is 
hard for the team, set the plow so as to take less land, but do not 
sacrifice the depth. Harrow again thoroughly, and the land is ready 
for the trees or vines. 

Avoiding Dead Furrows. — Unless dead furrows can be used to 
advantage for surface drainage in case of heavy rain-storms, it 
will be of decided convenience in laying ofif to have the field free 
from them. This can, of course, be secured by beginning the final 
plowing at a line in the center of the field, turning all furrows in- 
wards. In this case, too, if a right-hand plow is used, the team will 
always turn on unplowed land, and thus avoid trampling upon and 
packing the loose soil. The slight ridge in the center of the field 
formed by the first two furrows can be easily leveled by a couple 
of back furrows, and when properly harrowed the field will be found 
sm.ooth as a floor for staking out for planting. 



WAYS OP LADING OUT ORCHARDS 



97 



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The Hexagonal or Septuple system. 



The Quincunx system. 



go CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

LAYING OUT FOR PLANTING IN SQUARES 

It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and for 
the beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in straight 
lines, and care should be taken to attain that end. Most orchards 
and vineyards in this State are laid out in squares ; that is, the 
rows of trees or vines are all at right angles to each other, as shown 
in the accompanying sketch. This is the simplest arrangement; 
and by some of our largest planters is held to be the best. It is true 
that the trees are not equidistant from each other in all directions, 
and that, theoretically at least, there is a portion of the ground 
unused — supposing that the roots occupy a circle, as do the 
branches. Practically, however, it may be doubted whether the 
hungry roots of well-grown trees or vines leave any portion of 
the soil unvisited. 

There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares 
available for planting at long distances, with growths between, 
which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between fruit trees. 
Such mixed planting is, however, but little practiced in California. 

VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES 

Marking With a Plow. — This method was used in laying off 
some large orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two- 
horse turning plow is rigged with a "marker" — a light wooden bar 
extending^ at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as 
the desired distance between the rows of trees. On the end of this 
bar a crosspiece is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches 
along on the surface of the ground. The line of the first furrow 
has to be designated by a flag stake, to which the plowman proceeds. 
When this is done, the team is turned and sent back along the next 
row, the location of which has been fixed by the marker, and so on 
for the length of the field, the marker being turned each time to 
indicate the next furrow. Following the same course the other way 
of the field leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the 
furrows. 

Measure and Sight. — Another method which is quite commonly 
used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combi- 
nation of measure and sight. The sighting stakes are usually plas- 
terers' laths pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more 
visible to the eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the 
distances and locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all 
around the field. Then locate a line of laths across the field each 
way through the center, these laths occupying places which the trees 
of these two central rows will fill. After these are in place, meas- 
urement' can be dispensed with, and the job can be finished by sight- 
ing through. The man on the ends of the rows has three laths to 



HOW TO FIX DISTANCES 99 

sight by in each row, and the stake driver places the stakes as 
directed by the sighter. Good location can be done this way if a 
man has a good eye and patience enough. 

Marking Off With a Wire. — A measuring wire or chain is, per- 
haps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines. 
It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as 
will be described presently. Measuring wires are made of annealed 
steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The length 
varies according to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay off 
the plantation in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred 
and eight feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length 
of one side of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use 
a wire as long as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of 
no consequence ; and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire 
just the length of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the 
wire is fixed a strong iron ring about one and one-half inches in 
diameter, to be slipped over stakes ; some use a larger ring, say 
three inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling 
taut. Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the 
distances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these 
places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the points 
may be easily seen. Another style of measuring wires is made of 
small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diameter, made of 
several strands of small wire. It is more flexible and less likely to 
become kinked than the large wire, and can be easily marked off 
to represent the distances, at which rows of different kinds of trees 
should be placed, by separating the strands a little at the desired 
points and inserting a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires 
together again and tying firmly with a waxed thread to prevent 
slipping. In this way the same wire can be easily arranged for 
planting vines or for the trees requiring the greatest distance be- 
tween the rows. Another advantage of the cable is that any stretch- 
ing can be taken up by retwisting, which can not be done with the 
stretching of a single wire. Another good style of planting wire is 
made of 2, 4 or 6-foot links of No. 12 steel wire (including the diam- 
eters of the small rings turned at each end of the link pieces). As 
all planting will probably be at multiple distances of these link- 
lengths, the cloth tags can be changed and the chain thus be marked 
for any desired distances. 

Finding a True Corner. — To use the measuring wire for laying 
out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner true, 
and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select 
the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the square and 
stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which 
will give room enough to turn with the team in cultivation or to 
drive along in picking-time. When the wire is thus stretched 



J^QQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

parallel with the boundary of the field, place a stake at each of the 
distance tags on the wire, and these stakes will represent the first 
row of trees or vines. To find a square corner, begin at the starting 
point and measure ofif sixty feet along this row with a tape line, 
and put a temporary stake, then from the starting-point measure 
ofif eighty feet as nearly at a right angle with the first line as can be 
judged with the eye, and run diagonally from this point the tem- 
porary sixty-foot stake. If the distance between these stakes is one 
hundred feet, then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the out- 
side lines started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with 
the measuring wire and lay ofif as large an area as he desires, if 
care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and all 
stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire — providing the 
land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over 
uneven ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree 
to tree, with the tape line held as nearly to a level as possible. 

Rows on Hillsides. — Laying ofif orchard or vineyard on hillside 
too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in plac- 
ing the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the 
rows along the face of the hill. In planting trees thus the advantage 
to be gained is by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill ; 
thereby you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower 
side of the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side 
of the rows, for the plow or harrow is always below the team. If 
trees are planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the hill 
a little between the rows, then allowed to drop down hill one step, 
and thus one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The 
same rule will apply to vines. 

QUINCUNX PLANTING 

There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State. 
It is, in fact, made to cover almost every kind of arrangement which 
is not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean "the 
arrangement of things, especially of trees, by fives in a square, one 
being placed in the middle of a square." Trees set in quincunx 
would stand as shown in the accompanying diagram. To locate 
them in this form it is only necessary to proceed as already described 
for planting in squares, by fixing upon the base line and locating two 
side lines to it at right angles. Place the stakes on these two lines 
just half the distance desired between the trees, and have the meas- 
uring wire long enough to reach across from one line to the other. 
Near one end of the wire place another mark just half way between 
the end and the first tree mark; that is, if the trees are to be 
twenty-four feet apart in the squares, this additional mark should 
be twelve feet from the end of the wire. Now set the first row with 
the end of the wire at the corner stake, and set stakes at each 
twenty-four foot mark. 



TRIANGULAR PLANTING ;[01 

Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of putting 
the end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark there. 
Put stakes now at each twenty-four foot mark again to locate the 
trees in that row. In the next row put the cud of the wire at the 
first stake and proceed as in the first row. Thereafter using the end 
of the wire and -the twelve-foot marks alternately, the stakes will 
be set in quincunx all over the field. If the midway stakes are now 
pulled out along the two side lines, the remaining stakes show where 
the trees are to be placed. This way of planting locates about sev- 
enty-eight per cent more trees upon any given area, but it brings the 
trees at irregular distances from each other, and except in furnish- 
ing a way to arrange an orchard with permanent and temporary 
trees, there does not seem to be any advantage in it. 

PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES 

This is the arrangement generally implied when the term "quin- 
cunx" is wrongly employed. By it the trees are all equally distant 
from each other, and thus the ground divided as equally as possible. 
The arrangement admits fifteen per cent more trees to the acre 
than the setting in squares, and the ground can be worked in three 
different directions. This arrangement also gives better facilities 
for irrigation. Objections are urged to it, however, in that it does 
not admit of thinning trees by removal of alternate rows, as is some- 
times desirable, and that one has to take a zigzag course in driving 
through the orchard. 

Hexagonal planting places the trees as shown in the accompany- 
ing sketch. 

It is termed hexagonal because, as the figure consists of six 
trees inclosing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing 
trees makes a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because 
seven trees enter into its figure. 

An orchard can be laid out in hexagonals by using the measuring 
wire as described for quincunx planting with the distance and half- 
distance marks, except that the guide stakes in the side rows must 
be placed at different distances apart. The following table, show- 
ing the distance for side stakes to reach desired distance between 
the trees, and the method of calculating the number of trees to the 
acre by the square and hexagonal or sextuple arrangement : 

Trees set Sextuple Check-stakes should be 

10 feet apart 8 feet 8 inches. 

12 feet apart 10 feet 4 2-5 inches. 

14 feet apart 12 feet % inches. 

16 feet apart 13 feet 10% inches. 

18 feet apart 15 feet 7 inches. 

20 feet apart 17 feet 4 inches. 

21 feet apart 18 feet 21/2 inches. 

22 feet apart 19 feet % inches. 

24 feet apart 20 feet 91/2 inches. 



-j^Q2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

After the field is staked, each alternate stake in the check rows should be 
removed. The following table will show the number of trees to the acre by 
the square and septuple system : 

Square Septuple 

10 feet apart 435 500 

12 feet apart 302 347 

14 feet apart 222 255 

16 feet apart 170 1£5 

18 feet apart 134 154 

20 feet apart 109 125 

21 feet apart 99 114 

22 feet apart 90 103 

24 feet apart 75 86 

For any distance not given in the above table, calculate the number of 
trees to the acre by the square system, and add fifteen per cent. This will 
give the number if planted septuple. 

Laying Out Hexagonals with a Triangle. — It is possible to lay 
out an orchard in hexagonal form by working from stake to stake 
with an equilateral triangle of dimensions equaling the distance 
required between the trees. 




One corner of triangle — all being made alike. 

Take three strips of one-by-two-inch dry pine or redwood, and as long 
as you wish the distance between the trees. Cut the strips the same length, 
and fasten the corners of the triangle firmly together by nailing two pieces of 
pine board six by six inches. 

If the long strips are set up edgewise, the triangle will be much stiffer 
and better to carry. Through the corner boards bore an inch hole, making 
sure that the three sides of the triangle measure exactly the same. If they 
do, the triangle must necessarily be perfect. Then brace it a little by nailing 
a lath across each corner, and it is ready for use. 

Now split out some three-quarter-inch pins, one foot long, from good, 
straight-grained redwood. Make one hundred pins for each acre you have to 
lay off. 

Three persons must now carry the triangle, beginning on one side of the 
field, say eight feet from the fence, and guided the first time through by a 
line of stakes. Carry the triangle with its side to the line of guide stakes and 



PLANTING ON HILLSIDES J^Qg 

its point in. The head man and the inside man will stick pins, while the rear 
man will slip his corner each time upon the pin set by the head man. 

After the first time across, the man at the inside point of the triangle 
alone will set pins, while the other two fit their corners upon the pins in the 
last row set. Thus one row of pins only is set each time you go across the 
field. 

If the triangle is exact, and the first row of pins is set perfectly straight, 
and the pins are always set perpendicularly, everything will now work like a 
charm and the job will be perfect; and it is so simple and easy that a man 
and two small boys can lay off from five to ten acres in one day. Remember 
that no guide stakes are used anywhere after the first time through. 

The Triangle on Hillside. — The use of the triangle requires a 
little nicety in "leveling up" where the piece is hilly. By using a 
plumb-line at two corners of the triangle, the third corner resting on 
one of the stakes, leveling the triangle and bringing one of the 
plumb-lines over another stake already set, the position of the 
other line would determine the position of the next stake. Thi§ 
method has worked fairly well, even in places where the slope was 
sufficient to give a fall of six feet between the trees, which were set 
twenty feet apart. 

Locating in Triangles with a Chain. — Instead of a wooden tri- 
angle, a chain has been used in this way : 

First stretch a chain along one side of the ground, setting by it the first 
row of stakes. This forms the base line. Have a piece of chain just twice 
the length of the established distance between trees, with ample rings on the 
ends and a joint in the middle. Put one of the rings over the first stake and 
the other over the second stake. Then take the joint in the middle of the 
chain and stretch it out reasonably tight. The wire forms a letter V, at the 
focus of which stick a stake. The point is indicated with precision by the 
joint in the middle of the chain. Then take the ring off the first stake and 
put it over the third stake, leaving the one on the second stake where it is. 
Tighten the chain again, and another point is fixed. Thus continue all the 
base line, shifting the rings alternately, turning over the chain as one turns 
a pair of draughtman's compasses in his hand when spacing off a line. The 
second row of s.t,akes being set, set the third row, and so on through the 
ground. 

The suggestions given in this chapter should indicate ways 
enough to lay off orchard and vineyard ground to answer all needs, 
though there are other good ways not mentioned. It is hoped that 
the instructions will not be regarded as too explicit. They are 
intended for the guidance of the inexperienced planter, and will nat- 
urally seem laden with detail to those who have become familiar 
with the operations by repeated practice. 



CHAPTER XI 

PLANTING THE TREES 

After the field has been graded, thoroughly tilled and carefully 
laid ofif as has been described, the next step is digging the holes for 
the trees. "How large shall the holes be?" He was a wise fruit 
grower who, when asked this question, replied, "As large as the 
field." That is to say, it is much better to work the whole ground 
over deeply than to trust to deep holes and shallow working else- 
where. Where this is done, the tree holes need only be large enough 
and deep enough to receive the roots without folding them in or 
cramping them up. In a loose, deep soil, however, one can dig extra 
deep and broad holes if he desires, and will be repaid by extra 
growth of the tree ; but in a close, tenacious soil a deep hole is not 
only undesirable, but often positively a danger to the tree, unless 
drainage of the holes is provided artificially. Such holes hold water 
like a tub, and the loosening of the soil deeply facilitites its gather- 
ing in the hole. Many have found their trees in such places dwind- 
ling and dying because their roots were soaking in water. 

Planting on Some Shallow Soils. — As a rule, trees should have a 
deep soil, and for these deep, free loams, California is famous, but 
there are situations where very satisfactory growth and production 
can be had, even when the hard-pan is near the surface and the soil 
would be called shallow. In such places it is the character of the 
subsoil which warrants the tree and vine planter in making use of 
them. Sometimes the hard-pan is so thin and near the surface that 
it can be broken through with a pick in digging the tree hole. Other- 
wise boring is done. It is about forty years since Mr. James Rutter, 
of Florin (on the "bed rock" lands near Sacramento), first noticed 
that there were vines here and there which grew exceptionally well 
and bore large crops of fine fruit. He found by investigation that 
under these vines there were crevices in the bed-rock, and from 
this he took the hint to bore through this hard-pan in the bottom 
of the hole where he placed the tree, and in this way he gained 
access for the roots to the subsoil and egress for the water through 
the permeable substratum. He bored a hole two inches in diameter 
into or through the bed-rock and rammed well into it one and a half 
pounds of black blasting powder. After exploding this, he some- 
times bored a three-inch hole about four feet below the blast. In- 
stead of blasting in the hole where the tree is to be planted, some 
bore and blast the hard-pan midway between the rows, placing the 
holes at "quincunx" with the trees. The shattering of the hard-pan 

104 



PREPARING HOLES FOR PLANTING 205 

between the trees is said to be practicable after the trees are grow- 
ing, and may in certain soils relieve trees which are suffering for 
lack of drainage. A half-pound cartridge of dynamite has been 
successfully used for subsoil blasting, and some have reported in 
favor of exploding a quarter-pound cartridge quite near to a tree 
suffering from standing water, putting in the charge during the dry 
season. 

There are many situations where such practice would be bene- 
ficial, and in some cases mere digging or boring through the im- 
pervious stratum avails much. There are spots where "lava crusts" 
overlie gravel, and trees have been well grown by cutting holes 
through the lava to the gravel, filling with good soil and planting 
the trees in these holes. Their roots penetrate to the gravel stratum 
and obtain abundant moisture and nutriment. In certain situations 
where a shallow layer of soil overlies a heavy clay, trees have been 
blown over, but when a cut has been made through the clay, the 
trees have rooted deeply and have withstood the winds. 

Shooting Holes for Trees. — Even where there are continuous 
depths of dense strata, and not shallow hard-pan underlaid by free 
soils, trees can often be successfully grown by the use of high ex- 
plosives. In his book on "Soils" Professor Hilgard gives these 
suggestions : 

A permanent loosening of dense sub-strata is best accomplished by 
moderate charges (J4 to % lb.) of No. 2 dynamite at a sufficient depth (3 to 
5 ft.). The shattering efifect of the explosure will be sensible to a depth of 
eight feet or more, and will fissure the clay or hard pan to a corresponding 
extent sidewise. If properly proportioned the charge will hardly disturb the 
surface; but if this be desired, from 1^4 to 2% pounds of black powder placed 
above the dynamite will throw out sufficient earth to plant the tree without 
farther digging. Where labor is high-priced this proves the cheapest as well 
as the best way to prepare such ground for tree planting, and it has often 
been found that in course of time the loosening begun by the powder has 
extended through the mass of the land so as to permit the roots to utilize it 
fully and even to permit, in after years, of the planting of field cropc where 
formerly they would not succeed. 

The boring for such blasting is usually with an ordinary carpen- 
ter's auger, a little larger than the diameter of the cartridge to be 
used ; the shank of the auger being lengthened by the blacksmith to 
reach the depth desired. 

It is becoming more and more apparent, however, that for com- 
mercial plantings of trees and vines all such defective soils should 
be avoided. There is plenty of good, deep land to be had, and the 
burden of ameliorating poor land is a serious handicap in the com- 
petition which has brought production to very narrow margins of 
profit. 

Digging the Holes. — Holes for tree planting may be dug at a 
leisure time after the laying off of the field, even though it is not 
designed to plant the trees immediately, but our largest planters 



106 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



do not approve the practice. In such cases the sides of the holes 
should always be freshly pared off before the trees are put in, be- 
cause the rain and sunshine are apt to cement the sides. In digging 
holes the surface earth should always be thrown on one side and 
the lower soil on another. The object of this is to have the top soil 
to place in direct contact with the roots when the tree is planted, the 
lower soil being used to fill up the hole with. . • 

TREE SETTERS 

No matter how carefully the stakes are placed in laying off the 
orchard, the trees will not easily come in line unless some handy 
device is used for bringing the stem just in the place occupied by 
the stake which was thrown out in digging. These devices are 
called "tree-setters," and there are a number of designs. Two are 
given, either of which will give good results. Take a piece of board 
one inch thick, four inches wide, and five feet long; bore an inch 
hole in the center, and one at each end at equal distance from the 
center; then cut a piece from one side of the board, marked by a 



J \ o| 



Bar for tree setting. 

square, the corner resting in the middle of the center hole. Make 
two stakes, each one foot long, that will easily pass through the 
end holes. Place the center of this board against the stake, where 
the tree is to be planted; push the stakes into the ground through 
the holes in the ends, then lift the board from position and proceed 
to dig the hole. When dug, replace the board over the end stakes 
in its former position, then plant the tree with its trunk resting 
against the center notch in the board, and you have it in just the 
right place. 

Another setter is in the form of a triangle : Take three pieces 
of plain one-inch stuff three to four inches wide and four feet long, 
and nail them together, forming a three-cornered frame, letting the 
ends project sufficiently to form a* corner, as shown in the drawing. 
Next make a couple of smooth, hard stakes, well sharpened, and 
about a foot or sixteen inches in length. When you are ready to 
set your trees, place the frame flat upon the ground with one corner 
firmly and fairly against the stake which marks the place where the 
tree is to stand. Now in the other two corners stick the stakes 
already prepared for the purpose. This done pull up the stake 
against which the frame was first placed — the one indicating a place 
for a tree — remove the frame, being careful in doing so not to move 
the other two stakes, which must be left to be used while setting 



DEVICES FOR SETTING TREES 107 

the tree. After the hole is dug and everything ready for setting the 
tree, again place the frame against the two standing stakes, let the 
tree drop into the other corner, which will help support it while the 
dirt is being placed about the roots ; and this will bring the tree 
exactly where the stake was originally. If the stakes are properly 
put in line, so willl3e the trees. 

These setters are described as they are used when the hole is dug 
and the tree set at the same time. Such is the ordinary practice in 
planting. If one wishes to dig the holes beforehand, it is necessary 
to furnish more stakes, as two have to be left beside each hole to 
mark the position of the setter when the planting is done. Besides 
its use in bringing a tree into line, the tree-setter enables one to 




Triangular tree setter. 



judge of the depth of setting as compared with the surface of the 
surrounding ground. It is not easy to determine this with the eye 
if the hole be a large one. Where the measuring wire is used to 
set the stakes, it is sometimes stretched across again after the holes 
are dug, the tags on the wire thus indicating the places for the trees 
of the whole row. The trouble with this practice is the bother of 
having the wire in the way while filling and, tramping the earth 
around the roots. 

, . SELECTING TREES 

In the purchase of trees it is well to patronize nurserymen in 
your own district, providing they are honest and intelligent men, 
Who keep themselves informed as they should about their business. 
The advice' of ^tich a local nurseryman is often of great value to the 
rtewcomer, for he will know by his experience and observation much 
about the adaptations of fruits and varieties thereof to the region. 
H, for' any reason; local nurseries do not meet your needs, seek 
some well-established nursery at a distance. It is much safer to 
deal directly with the, gr.owei; of the trees than to patronize traveling' 



IQg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

agents. Where, however, these agents are the accredited represen- 
tatives of well-known establishments, they may save the planter time 
and trouble by taking his order for him. So-called "tree peddlers," 
who are jobbers in trees and in too many cases send you refuse trees 
which they pick up cheap wherever they can, and label them to suit, 
without respect to truth or honesty, should be resolutely avoided, 
no matter what inducements or blandishments they may offer. 

The California legislature of 1907, passed a law making it unlaw- 
ful to sell fruit trees representing them to be a certain kind and aft- 
erwards to deliver trees of a dififerent kind. To do this is a misde- 
meanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. Action may be begun 
at any time within seven years after the date of delivery of such 
trees.* 

It is desirable, if possible, to visit the nursery and see the stock 
which is to be furnished. The trees should have a good healthy 
look, with clean bark, and of. size enough to indicate a good, free 
growth. The matter of size is not the only point to consider, for 
size of the top is not so desirable as well-matured wood and plenty 
of roots. On the other hand, stunted trees are not, as a rule, worth 
planting, for a stunted tree, like a stunted calf, often does not make 
a good after-growth. There are cases, however, in which, by extra 
cultivation in good soil, fine trees have been grown even from 
"culls" from the nursery. The best rule is to select trees of good 
medium size, straight and healthy. In judging size, however, 
one must take California and not Eastern standards, because 
our nursery stock, if well grown, invariably is of much 
greater size than Eastern. If the visit is during the digging 
season, ask to see samples of the roots as well as the tops and do 
not purchase trees unless the roots are healthy looking and free 
from knots or excresences. Gnarly and knotty roots in the young 
tree are a sure sign of insect pests or of unhealthy growth, and 
planting such trees has occasioned our orchardists immense loss. 
Many have been led into purchasing poor trees because they may be 
had cheap. A tree selected merely because it is cheap may prove 
the most expensive thing a man can put in the ground. 

Guarding Against Insects. — The top of the tree should be care- 
fully examined to discover scale insects if there be any. For this 
purpose a hand-magnifier should be used. Such a glass should 
always be in the fruit grower's pocket. One can be bought at 
any optician's for a dollar or two, which will fold into its case so as 
to be carried without scratching. Our nurserymen, by forsaking old 
infested locations and obtaining new ground, now sell much cleaner 
trees than they did years ago. But still it is well to be always on 
the watch for p.ests. Disinfection of nursery stock is now officially 
provided. Details of treatment will be given in the chapter on 
injurious insects. 

* statutes and amendments to the Codes, 1907; Chap. 229. 



TREATMENT OP YOUNG TREES ^QQ 

TAKING TREES FROM THE NURSERY 

Trees should be carefully taken from the nursery rows so as to 
obtain a good amount of small branching roots. In lifting from the 
home nursery, digging with well-sharpened spades, which will sever 
the long roots cleanly, is perhaps the best method. In the large 
nurseries tree-diggers are generally used. They have two revolving 
coulters, which cut through the surface soil each side of the trees, 
and a sharp, curved blade, which is drawn through the ground under 
the trees, loosening the soil and severing the long roots cleanly. 
The tree is then easily lifted, and has generally a much better root 
system than by the old style of "ploughing out," which broke off 
so many of the small roots and lacerated the larger ones. Whether 
the taproot should be retained or not is not worth discussing on 
theoretical grounds. As a matter of fact and practice, the taproot 
cuts no figure at all in California orchard planting, although the 
discussion of the question was formerly very warm in this State, 
and is still occasionally heard. It is important, however, that the 
planter should have as many small lateral roots as he can get. The 
small fibrous roots are usually of little account, as they seldom sur- 
vive transplanting, and it is better to clip them away, if the time 
can be afforded, as they often prevent the proper close contact of 
the soil with the larger roots. Cutting back all roots to short stubs 
at the base of the stem has succeeded in some instances in California 
on moist low lands, but longer roots are far safer in the deep drying 
of the surface layer which is to be expected in this State. 

The roots, after lifting, should not be permitted to dry. Hence, 
in hauling from the nursery to the farm, the trees should be well 
covered with wet straw and old sacks, or, if shipped from the nur- 
sery to distant points, should be well packed. The best way to pack 
trees is, undoubtedly, to box them in with wet straw, but it costs 
less and they usually carry well considerable distances if carefully 
bundled with tules (dry reed stems), the roots packed in wet straw, 
and the packing and covering bound down tight with ropes to 
prevent drying out. 

Attention should be paid to hauling away trees from the railway 
stations as soon as possible after arrival. It is not uncommon for 
shipments to lie on the station platforms for days, often when a 
desiccating north wind is blowing. Such treatment soon takes the 
life out of the rootlets, and often, no doubt, the nurseryman is 
blamed for failure of trees which have suffered some such neglect 
as this, either from transportation companies or from the purchasers. 

Heeling In. — On arrival at the farms, trees should be "heeled in" 
as soon as possible ; even if it is the intention to plant at once, heel 
them in just the same, for delays arise often in the most unexpected 
manner. To heel in, dig a trench or plow a deep furrow, or a double 
furrow, in light, moist, but well-drained soil ; put in the trees singly 



IIQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

side by side, removing all the packing material carefully from the 
roots, laying the tops all one way, and then shovel the earth over 
the roots until they are well covered with loose soil, and be sure 
that the soil sifts down well between the roots. Ordinarily this 
treatment will hold the trees in good condition for a considerable 
time if need be. If, however, they have become dry before arrival, 
the bundles should be thoroughly drenched with water before heel- 
ing in. In extreme cases, where the top shows drying by shrinking 
and shriveling of the bark, the trees should be drenched, and then 
they should be covered root and top with earth for two or three 
days, when, if the trouble has not gone too far, the bark will recover 
its smoothness and plumpness. It should be very seldom, however, 
that a lot of trees is allowed to get into such condition by neglect. 
In heeling in it will be found a great convenience and a safeguard 
against possible confusion by loss of labels, if each variety as taken 
from the packing is placed by itself in the trench. Nurserymen gen- 
erally attach a label to each small bundle, if the trees are of several 
varieties, and the novice is apt to lose all track of his sorts when 
heeling in the trench, unless he heels in each kind by itself, leaving 
the nurseryman's label to mark the whole lot of each kind. 

If the planter has his own ideas of after-treatment of his trees, 
or if he is a beginner and desires to adopt the suggestions which 
will be laid down in this book, he should insist that the nursery- 
man shall not trim up nor cut back the trees before packing. Have 
the trees packed just as they are lifted from the ground. The work 
toward the shaping of the tree should be done after it is planted in 
the orchard. 

PLANTING THE ORCHARD 

The young deciduous tree should be dormant before being moved , 
from the nursery row, and if its leaves have fallen it is good evidence 
of its dormancy. Such, however, is the efifect of the climate of Cal- 
ifornia, more apparent in some years than others, and with some 
kinds of fruit than others, that the young tree retains a small part 
of its activity very late, and in such cases it is not practicable to wait 
for the complete falling of the leaves. Sometimes for convenience 
of work, the trees have to be lifted before this takes place, and in 
such case it is desirable to remove the leaves to lessen evaporation. 
It is probably better to transplant in this condition for the sake of , 
early setting in its new position than to wait for all the leaves, to 
drop. This statement is not intended to include nursery stock which 
is kept growing late in the season by late irrigation. Such trees are 
not always desirable. 

Time to Plant. — The best time to plant deciduous trees in Cali- 
fornia is soon after the early rains have deeply moistened the 



CONDITIONS FOR PLANTING ^H 

ground. It is not desirable, however, to have a stratum of dry 
earth below. This can be removed by irrigation when available. 
Early planting of common orchard fruits is of advantage for sev- 
eral reasons. First, an early-planted tree gets the full benefit of the 
season's rainfall, whatever it may be, and a late-planted tree, in a 
year with short rainfall, is apt to suffer during its first season's 
growth, unless it can be irrigated. The two main things to observe 
are the dormancy of the tree and the proper condition of the soil, 
and both of these are most apt to coincide in many parts of Cali- 
fornia about the first of January, but in heavy loams in region of 
large rainfall, the soil may then be too cold and wet. There will, 
however, be some variation from year to year, and different parts 
of the State disagree as to the date. Hence, the general rule must 
be based on conditions, that of the tree and that of the soiL If the 
novice can not judge these for himself, he must get the advice of 
some one of experience in the locality. 

The dormant period of a tree in California, as has been stated 
in another connection, is very short. As many cold-climate annual 
plants become perennial here, so our deciduous trees, in compara- 
tively frostless portions of the State, evince a tendency to become 
evergreen. The period of dormancy in the root is also shorter than 
the inactivity of the top. Trees transplanted early are found to 
have their root wounds callused over and new rootlets considerably 
adyanced before the buds swell. Therefore, by early planting the 
tree begins soon to take hold upon the soil, the latter being well 
settled around it by rains, which often follow early planting, and 
the high winds, which are apt to come in the spring in some parts 
of the State, find the tree well anchored and ready to maintain itself. 

Again, the proper condition of soil, if not seized at its first com- 
ing, may not recur until after the great storms of the winter are 
over, say in February or March (in most parts of the State), and 
then, often the buds are bursting into bloom and leaf. Planting 
when the soil is water-soaked and cold is very undesirable, for in 
such condition it can not be properly disposed about the roots, the 
inactive roots may begin to decay and trees moved at this period are 
apt to show their dislike of the treatment. If the work has been 
delayed unavoidably, so -that early planting can not be done, it is 
better to keep the trees heeled in until the proper soil condition 
returns, even if it be rather late, for a little extra attention to culti- 
vation for retention of moisture will pull through a late-planted tree. 

These remarks are of very wide application in this State, but 
there are exceptions. In our high altitudes, where the climate 
approaches Eastern conditions in cold and snowfall, practice in 
planting will also approximate Eastern methods. In regions of 
very heavy rainfall and on the upper coast where the rainy season 
and moisture from fogs are prolonged late in the spring, late planting 
is safer and surer than in the warmer, drier parts of the State. 



112 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Another consideration, too, is the slope of the land to be planted. 
Our hillside fruit growers in regions of heavy winter storms some- 
times plant slopes, which, if plowed deep in the fall, are apt to wash 
badly during the heavy winter rains. On such slopes it is better 
to plow late in the winter, after the heavy storms are over, and plant 
when the soil has become warm and mellow. 

THE OPERATION OF PLANTING 

Tree planting should be carefully and well done, but it need not 
necessarily be slowly done. With a kind soil deeply worked and 
just in the right condition for planting, trees may be put in well 
and rapidly. Two men work together at a decided advantage. 
Using the straight "tree-setter," which has already been described, 
one takes each end, and as soon as the center notch encloses the 
tree stake, the setter stakes are pushed into the soil, the "setter" 
is laid aside, and the two men, taking up their shovels or spades, 
begin first around the outside of the hole, throwing all the surface 
dirt on the same side of the hole and leaving the tree stake to be 
thrown out last, because its remaining serves to center the hole. 
The lower soil is now thrown to the other side of the hole, and 
when depth enough is reached, the soil at the bottom of the hole 
is loosened up to the depth of a shovel-thrust, without removing 
it from the hole. A shovelful or two of the surface soil is thrown 
into the center of the hole, being allowed to remain higher 
in the center, because this generally furnishes a cushion about 
the natural shape of the under surface of the root system of 
the tree. Now replace the tree-setter upon its end pegs, let one 
man hold the tree with its stem in the central notch in the setter, 
and while the other man shovels in the surface earth rather slowly 
at first, the man who holds the tree with one hand will spread out 
the roots, pulverize and pack the earth around them, being sure 
that no cavities are left under any of the roots, but that their sur- 
faces everywhere come in contact with the soil, and that they spread 
out as widely as possible. The earth is being continuously put in 
by the shoveler, and when the roots are covered the planter steps 
in the hole and carefully firms the soil down upon the roots by 
tramping (especially at the cut ends of the roots around the outer 
side of the hole), at the same time judging of the perpendicularity 
of the tree with his eye. When this is done, both men use their 
shovels and fill up the hole with the earth taken from below, being 
sure to leave the last few inches at the surface pulverized, but 
untramped, unless the soil be very light so that tramping will not 
overpack it. Some one said long ago that one should not plant a 
tree as he does a post, ramming down the earth to the very top of 
the hole. Many trees are doubtless ruined by over zeal in this 
respect. 



SUGGESTIONS ABOUT PLANTING j^j^g 

The shovel has been mentioned frequently as the tool to be used 
in planting. Where the soil is deeply ploughed, well worked, and 
free from stone, the shovel is the most rapid tool. Under other con- 
ditions the long-handled spade, and in some cases the long-handled 
spading fork, serves admirably in loosening the soil at the bottom 
of the holes and in breaking up lumps while filling in. One man 
with a shovel or spade, and the other with the fork, make a good 
combination in this respect. 

Planting in a Furrow. — A practice which has been largely fol- 
lowed in the Sacramento Valley and which attains greatest speed 
and cheapness consists in laying off as described on page ninety- 
eight, and then proceeding with a heavy listing plow, followed by 
a subsoil plow in the same furrow. The trees are then rapidly set 
with the least digging. This is all done before the field is plowed. 
Plowing immediately follows planting. The advantages of this 
method are ease of work on firm ground instead of a plowed surface, 
and escape of injury to this surface by men and teams in planting 
after plowing. 

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS 

The roots of every tree should be examined before planting. All 
large root ends should have a fresh, clean cut with a sharp knife or 
shears. Make a slanting cut with the cut surface on the underside 
of the root. Where a root is mangled or bruised, it should in most 
cases be cut back to a sound place. 

The tree should be placed if possible with the same side toward 
the sun as was exposed to the sun in the nursery ; at all events, the 
wound made by the cutting away of the seedling stock above the 
bud should be at the north or northeast, in order that this weak 
point may be shaded as much as possible from the afternoon sun. 

If the roots of the young tree grow more to one side than the 
other, place the strongest roots toward the prevailing wind. 

The use of water to settle the earth around the roots is some- 
times desirable in sections where the rainfall is light or uncertain. 
Pour in the water after the hand work in spreading the roots and in 
pressing the soil under and around them has been done and the hole 
partly filled. When the water has soaked away, fill the hole with 
fine earth zvithout tramping. In irrigated districts leading the water 
along the line of trees in a furrow to settle the ground at planting is 
a good practice. It is almost essential in the planting of evergreen 
trees which are best moved during the dry season. In early planting 
in parts of the State where the rainfall is abundant, there may be 
no need of water-settling; in late planting, however, it will some- 
times be found of advantage. Puddling the roots, or dipping them 
in thin mud and planting with this mud adhering, is governed by 
much the same conditions as water-settling; it may insure the 



■[l^ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

growth of the tree when otherwise it might be seriously injured by 
drouth. With puddled roots especial care should also be taken to 
leave the surface loose to prevent evaporation. In making puddle, 
use loamy soil and never adobe, for in dry time the latter will bake 
around the roots and may kill the tree. 

The Use of Manure. — Never put manure in the hole with the 
tree. Sometimes the injunction is, Never put anything but well- 
rotted manure in the hole. It is better to put none of any kind. 
Manure should be spread upon the ground after planting. The rains 
then leach it out and it may be turned under in the spring plowing. 
There are, however, light soils in the drier parts of the state where 
turning under manure in the spring is a disadvantage, as it makes 
the soil too porus and facilitates evaporation. On such soils, extra 
care should be taken to have the manure thoroughly decomposed 
by composting, as will be described in the chapter on fertilizers, and 
all applications should be made either late in the spring to act as 
a mulch in the summer, or if a mulch is not thought desirable, apply 
the manure in the fall before the first rains, so that it may be turned 
under at the first plowing and have the whole winter for disintegra- 
tion. In this dry climate there is often misapprehension, especially 
among newcomers, as to what is well-rotted manure. They take 
ths scrapings of the corral, which have been trampled and pul- 
verized, but which, having been kept dry, have never rotted. When 
this is put in the holes with the tree and then moistened by rainfall 
or irrigation, it will burn the tree, the first sign of injury being the 
drying up of the leaves. It is, on the whole, safest and best to put 
nothing but well-pulverized surface soil around the roots of the 
young tree. 

Depth of Planting. — The depth to which trees should be set has 
always been a matter of discord among the planters. The safest rule 
under ordinary circumstances is to get the tree as nearly as possible 
the same depth it stood in the nursery row ; that is, so as to have it 
stand that way when the ground has settled, or the surface returned 
by cultivation to its normal level. In planting in loose soil in the 
drier parts of the State, it is often desirable to plant rather low, 
because several inches depth of the surface soil become dry, and the 
roots should be well in the moist layer. But if irrigation is to be 
practiced, it must be remembered that the water level will rise when 
the soil is saturated and deep-planted trees are apt to sufifer. The 
experience of recent years is decidedly against deep planting, which 
used to be advised because of our dry climate. Thousands of trees 
have been ruined by planting too deep except in light sandy soil. 

Speed in Planting. — On good soil, well prepared, trees can be 
put in rapidly and the job still be well done. It is reported that on 
one occasion, in planting almonds, twenty men finished sixty-four 



TREATMENT OP YOUNG ORCHARD 



115 



acres from Friday noon to Wednesday night, placing the stakes, 
digging the holes, and planting the trees. This would be almost 
three-quarters of an acre per day per man. In planting peaches 
and apricots an average of one hundred trees per day to the man 
has been attained. On the mellow loam, in another case, the aver- 
age was one hundred and twenty-five trees to the man, digging holes 
two feet square in land which had been plowed twelve inches deep. 
Such work is only possible on good soil, well prepared, and by men 
who work well together. 

Mapping and Labeling. — Where mixed varieties of fruit are 
planted, the orchard should be mapped as soon as the trees are set. 
A good durable map is made of the glazed muslin, such as carpenters 
and architects use for their drawings. The map can easily be drawn 
to a scale by using a fraction of an inch to represent a foot. After 
the map is made, it can be rolled on a broom stick and easily pre- 
served. With such a record, the grower need not care what becomes 
of the labels, as he can locate a variety any time by its row and tree 
number. If, however, one desires labels, let them be made in this 
way : Take a piece of common sheet zinc five inches wide. Across 
this, cut pieces three-quarters of an inch wide at one end and taper- 
ing to a point at the other. Near the wider end write plainly with a 
common lead-pencil the name of the variety. This will get brighter 
by exposure to the weather. The small end may be coiled around 
the branch of the tree ; it will yield as the tree grows and will do 
no injury. Such labels will last for a long time. Labels attached 
by a cord or wire should be removed as soon as the trees are set, for 
they are apt to be forgotten and the tree seriously injured by the 
cutting in of the ligature. Even when labels are used the map is 
the only surety, because any kind of a label is apt to be lost by acci- 
dent or through malice or mischief of intruders. 

Mulching. — Although early-planted trees on deep soils in regions 
of sufficient rainfall need only good cultivation, after planting, there 
are cases in which mulching is desirable. Various light materials 
may be used for a mulch, but nothing is better than well-rotted 
straw, in which fermentation has killed all weed seed. Apply it to 
a distance of two feet around the tree, and to a depth of not less than 
six inches. It is best done as soon as the tree is planted, and is to 
be especially recommended when late, planting is practiced. Even 
in localities of light rainfall, if the trees are well mulched early in 
the winter, irrigation may be unnecessary for the young deciduous 
tree. Trees planted very late in the spring may, by using great 
care and mulching well, make as great a growth as those set out 
early in winter. This should not be an excuse for late planting, but 
where late planting is necessary, mulching will help the trees to pull 
through. It is a far easier way of keeping the ground moist than by 
irrigating, but is not a substitute for it where systematic irrigation 



116 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



is necessary, though irrigation may often be lessened, and in some 
cases obviated, by extra cultivation or mulching, at least until the 
trees come into bearing. 

Guarding Against Sunburn, — Newly-set trees should be pro- 
tected against sunburn. This can be easily done by winding strips 
of burlap from old grain sacks spirally around the stems beginning 
just below the ground surface to the points where the young shoots 
will appear. When these start the strip can be loosened and 
rewound so as to protect the bark between the shoots. The top can 
be fastened with a stitch or two with a twine needle. Manufactured 
"tree protectors" of paper or rushes which are readily adjusted 
around the trees are now largely sold. Whitewash made according 
to the formula at the close of Chapter IX is a good protection from 
sunburn. For young trees, however, it should be made with air- 
slacked lime, which has lost som.e of its causticity. Another white- 
wash, which has been largely used for young trees, consists of four 
ounces of whale oil soap dissolved in each gallon of water, Spanish 
whiting being stirred in to give the solution a paint-like consistency. 
Millions of trees have perished in this State, and as many more been 
condemned to sickly lives, because of sunburn, and borers which 
seek the injured bark for entrance. Pruning has much to do with 
saving trees from this evil, as will be shown in the proper connec- 
tion, but in the hotter parts of the State, the first precaution should 
be to shade the bark of the young tree with some artificial protec- 
tion. 

Cutting Back at Planting. — Whatever idea the grower may have 
as to shaping his tree, it must be cut back when planted. Lifting 
from the nursery has removed a considerable part of the root system 
of the young tree and the top must be reduced accordingly. The 
planter who dislikes to sacrifice the fine top will sacrifice future 
growth and vigor by retaining it. The tree may struggle through 
and regain strength, but it will for years be smaller than if it had 
been properly cut back at planting. If the moisture supply should 
be short the tree may die the first summer which would have sur- 
vived if differently treated at planting. The manner of cutting back 
depends somewhat upon the style of pruning to be followed after- 
ward, as will be considered in the next chapter. 



CHAPTER XII 
PRUNING TREES AND THINNING FRUIT 

It is not intended to enter into a discussion of the general theo- 
ries of pruning. The reader desiring to pursue them is referred to 
the abundant literature on the subject in Eastern and European 
treatises. The effort to approve or condemn these theories by con- 
sidering them in the light of 'California experience and observation 
might lead to interesting conclusions, but it has no place in a work 
aiming merely at an exposition of what appears to be the most satis- 
factory practice in California fruit growing. It will be found that 
this practice varies somewhat in the different regions of California, 
sometimes in degree, sometimes in kind, because of different local 
conditions, and it might be found that nearly all reasonable theories 
of pruning could be verified in California experience. 

Pruning in California is at present almost exclusively a shaping 
process. Our fruit trees are naturally so prone to bear fruit that 
pruning to produce fruitfulness is seldom thought of, and still more 
rarely practiced, whik pruning to reduce bearing wood, and thus 
decrease the burden of the tree, is quite widely done, to take the 
place, in part, of thinning out the fruit. Pruning to restore vigor to 
the tree, as in cutting it back to induce a new wood growth, is also 
rather a rare proceeding, but probably could be much more widely 
employed to advantage. We prune, then, for shape and for the 
many practical advantages which adhere in the form now prevailing 
in California orchards. Some of these advantages are peculiar to our 
climate ; others we share with those who advocate a similar form 
elsewhere. 

Our best orchards of the same fruits in adjacent localities are 
almost identical in form and general appearance of the trees, and 
those more distant differ chiefly in the extent to which the same 
principles are applied. And this is not because the trees are allowed 
to follow their natural inclination, which should secure resemblance, 
but because their natural bent is resolutely conquered by agreement 
of growers that they know what is good for the tree ; and this sub- 
stantial unanimity is the result of the experience of the last fifty-five 
years. People possessed of the art temperament sometimes com- 
plain of the depressing uniformity and artificiality of orchard-tree 
shapes in California. They are apt to lament the fact that system- 
atic orcharding destroys the picturesqueness of tree-growth. They 
should understand that such conception of a fruit tree has no place 
in commercial fruit growing. The producing tree is the result of the 

117 



118 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



conception of an agency to serve certain purposes. The orchardist 
does not prusue uniformity merely for its own sake, but rather for 
the purpose it serves, and the fact that many thinking men have 
practically agreed upon a certain form as an ideal of producing 
ability is demonstration that such form is, at least, approximately 
correct. There is an industrial conception of a tree, which is neces- 
sarily and essentially different from an art conception of pic- 
turesqueness based upon the feral type. The wild tree is rude and 
crude from a cultural point of view. 



PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF PRUNING 

One of the first things for the beginner to undertake as he 
approaches the practice of pruning trees and vines is to form a good 
idea of the purposes to be served. Imitation is not the foundation 
of intelligent pruning, though it yields many valuable suggestions. 
Satisfactory work rests upon a correct understanding of the reasons 
for each act and to the attainment of this, all study, observation and 
experience should tend. Possessing this, one can proceed capably, 
modifying method to meet condition, and producing desirable 
results. Receive all suggestions and then go quietly to the tree and 
study your problem in its shade. The tree is the best revelator of 
its needs. Some of the best pruners in California are men who were 
untrained to horticulture before they entered upon their orchard 
work. Reading, discussion, systematic instruction are all valuable. 
They save much time and many errors, but recourse to the tree- 
affords the sovereign test of attainment. 

These may be counted among the practical purposes to be 
attained by pruning in California : (a) Convenience of the grower; 
(&) health and strength of the tree; (c) regulation of heat and 
light; (d) attainment of strong bearing wood; (e) attainment of 
size in fruit; (/) promotion of regular bearing. Examine trees with 
reference to their embodiment of these characters and one can 
hardly fail to secure rays of light upon the subject of pruning which 
seems dark to so many. 

Convenience. — Trees which branch near the ground are most 
quickly and cheaply handled in all the operations of pruning, spray- 
ing, fruit-thinning and picking. Low trees with obliquely-rising 
branches are more easily cultivated than any form with horizontal 
branches, unless the head is carried so high that the animals pass 
easily under the tree. To do this sacrifices all the other conven- 
iences and economies which actually determine profit, and is really 
out of the question from a commercial point of view. Sometimes it 
does not pay to" pick some fruits at a certain distance above the 
ground, when picking at half that distance yields a profit. 



HEASONS FOR PRUNING H^ 

Health and Strength. — It is imperative in most parts of this State 
that the sunshine be not allowed to touch the bark during the heat 
of the day. This protection is secured even for young trees by low 
branching and encouragement of small, low laterals. The low tree 
with properly spaced branches attains superior strength by virtue 
of thick, strongly knit, short growth between branches, and by its 
strong, stiff, obliquely-rising growth sustains weight which brings 
horizontal branches to the ground, and thus even high-headed trees 
are liable to continually increasing interference with cultivation, and 
the desperate grower has to raise the head of his tree higher into the 
air and farther above the profit line, while at the same time he ren- 
ders it more liable to sunburn, to bark-binding, and to unthrift by 
forcing the sap to flow an unnecessary distance and through wood 
and bark which impede its movement. Besides, a low tree escapes 
stress by strong winds which a high tree invites and at the same 
time is less able to withstand. Pruning for health and strength of 
tree also includes the removal of unthrifty or diseased parts, which 
are not only an incumbrance to the tree but may communicate to 
other parts the causes of their ill condition. 

Heat and Light. — The maintenance of strong bearing wood in 
the lower part of the tree is conditioned upon the proper pruning 
of the top of the tree. How far the upper levels or the shade-layer 
of the tree can be safely opened, depends upon the local climate in 
each fruit region. The rule must be the higher the summer heat 
the denser the tree; the lower the heat the thinner the tree; but 
everywhere the proper condition of openness must be constantly 
in view in pruning. Not alone must this be done to maintain thrifty 
growth below, but it is also essential to the best growth and ripening 
of the fruit in the lower and interior parts of the tree. Fruit inferior 
in size, color and quality results, in part, from lack of pruning to 
regulate the admission of light and heat, sometimes one, sometimes 
both, to the shaded portion of the tree. 

Bearing Wood. — Good fruit develops on good bearing wood and 
good bearing wood is the product of proper degrees of light and 
heat, as has just been urged. But bearing wood in the case of some 
fruits is new wood, and reduction of old wood for the purpose of 
forcing the growth of new wood must be constantly in mind. Re- 
newal is more or less a consideration with all trees, and especially 
the securing of strong new wood. This is a point upon which close 
study of the bearing tree will yield most satisfactory suggestions. 

Size of Fruit. — The size of fruit, providing the tree is healthy and 
vigorous, depends upon the character and amount of bearing wood 
which the tree is allowed to carry. Removal of part of the fruit 
burden is done by thinning after it is well set, but this labor should 
a-lways be minimized by antecedent pruning, which aims to retain 
more or less bearing wood according to the vigor, size and bearing 



]^20 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

i ^i 

habit of the tree. Thinning out of bearing shoots and spurs, when 
either are clearly seen to be in excess, should be the constant study 
of the pruner. 

Regular Bearing. — This point is largely involved in the preceding 
and affords an additional incentive. Regulating the amount of fruit 
borne in one year may involve the profit of two years, because a 
tree may not be able to produce an excessive amount of fruit and 
perfect good fruit buds for the following year. It i^iay generally 
make buds which will bloom, but not always that. Itiit does make 
the bloom, it is no guaranty that the bloom will be strong and 
effective for bearing. Consequently, pruning for reasonable amount 
of bearing should always be borne in view and should be practiced 
at the close of the year of non-bearing with particular diligence, if 
the alternate year bearing habit is to be broken up. 

The foregoing are among the practical purposes to be served in 
pruning. There are others, but these will suffice to emphasize a 
single point, and that is, that pruning can not be compressed into a 
single formula, nor can one learn it by a recipe. There are various 
ends to attain; they may be attained in different ways, although it 
is not strange that substantial agreement in methods does largely 
prevail. It is better to try to understand the purposes than to mem- 
orize the formulae. Get the tree and its interest clearly in the mind ; 
have an ideal toward which to work; be more interested in why a 
neighbor prunes in a certain than how he does it. Learn constantly 
by all available means, and at the same time study the visible forms 
and aim to understand their fullest significance. 



FORM OF TREE BEST SUITED TO CALIFORNIA 
CONDITIONS 

The form of deciduous fruit tree which prevails with singular 
uniformity all over the State is the "vase," or "goblet," or "wine- 
glass" form, all these terms signifying a similar shape. There are 
different ways in which this form is secured and maintained in 
different parts of the State, and with different fruits, which will be 
especially noted in the chapters devoted to these fruits. 

The mainspring of success in California is to grow low trees. 
Low is a term admitting of degrees, it is true, and may imply a 
trunk six inches up to one or two feet, in the clear. In addition to' 
the general advantages of low-trained trees which have been 
described, there are special reasons for this form in California. Hun- 
dreds of thousands of trees have been destroyed by the exposure 
of a long, bare trunk to the rays of the afternoon sun. The sun- 
burned sides have given the conditions desired by borers, and 
destruction has quickly followed. Sometimes young trees have not. 
survived their first season in the orchard, because of burned bark; or 



THE POPULAR CALIFORNIA FORM 



121 



this, with the added injury by the borers. It is also found by Cali- 
fornia experience that growth is more vigorous in the branches 
when they emerge near the ground. Even where actual burning 
may not occur the travel of the sap through the longer distance of 
trunk is undesirable. It is believed, also, that benefit results from 
shading of the ground at the base of the trees, by reducing evapora- 
tion, and by maintaining a temperature of soil better suited to vig- 
orous root-growth. 

But whatever may be the reasons, the fact is indisputable, the 
higher the prevailing summer temperature, and the greater the 
aridity, the lower should the trees be headed. Trees which will do 
well in the central and upper-coast region and adjacent to the bay 
of San Francisco, with twenty-four to thirty-six inches of clear 
trunk, would dwindle and probably perish in the heated valleys in 
all parts of the State. In such situations, both north and south, the 
best practice is to head the tree fifteen, twelve, and even some hold 
as low as six inches from the ground. There will always be some 
difference of opinion as to detail, but the necessity of making the 
trunk short enough to be effectually shaded by the foliage is admit- 
ted by all growers. 

Characteristic of the California Vase Form. — This vase form is 
a product of French ingenuity in the training of dwarf trees, but it 
has undergone very marked modification in California, losing much 
of the accuracy of its outline and gaining vastly in speed of work 
and in bearing capacity of tree without sacrificing any practical 
value which adheres in the design. 

The California vase form dispenses with the central stem or 
trunk at a certain short distance above the ground, but this is not 
done for the purpose of securing a hollow or open-center tree, which 
is a leading characteristic of the old European vase-form. The few 
branches which are desired to grow from the short stem are pruned 
when the tree is young to induce successive branching with short 
interspaces. At each cutting the aim is to get two branches from 
one, and nearly as possible of equal vigor, so the California tree does 
not, except, of course, in occasional instances, show the outline of 
a leader from the bottom to the top, but there is a succession of 
branchings, turned this way or that by the skilful pruner, occupying 
available air space, distributing the weight so it comes more nearly 
over the center of gravity and at the same time knitting the fibers 
of the branch so that the weight of the fruit is well sustained. This 
idea, however, is not allowed to go so far as to wholly close the 
interior of the tree, but to retain such degree of open interior as is 
found desirable. When the tree is laden with fruit, the weight nat- 
urally expands the top quite enough to admit the sunlight without 
exposing either the fruit or the branches to danger of burning. Thus 
it appears that instead of the true vase or wine-glass, with hollow 



122 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



interior and thin walls, we have the general extierior outline of this 
model, but give a good part of the central area of the figure to bear- 
ing shoots, and thus secure a large bearing surface with well- 
strengthened supports. 

It has been found that this many-branching form, developed 
upon a few main branches well placed upon the trunk, gives a 
stronger tree than can be had by growing a considerable number of 
leaders, all starting from near the point where the tree was headed 
at planting. Such leaders crowd each other at the point of emer- 
gence from the stem, and when laden with fruit, sway outward and 
break out at this point. A vastly stronger tree is secured by start- 
ing but four or five branches from the low trunk and letting them 
emerge from different sides of the stem, and at different levels. 
Thus each main attachment to the stem has abundant room, and the 
wood enlarges symmetrically and solidly. The expansion of the top 
is attained by the branching which follows the cutting back of suc- 
ceeding years. Starting branches from nearly the same level on the 
stem has been the occasion of great losses of overladen trees, and 
quite a considerable recourse to strengthening up weak trees by 
running bolts through from side to side at the points where experi- 
ence shows breakage is likely to occur. In this respect it is now 
clearly seen that the practice which was widely adopted a few years 





Forms of head resulting from cutting back. 

Twelve-year-old apple tree in the writer's garden in Berkeley, showing forms 
of head resulting from cutting back for greater and less spacing of main branches 
at planting. 

ago of beginning with a very short stem and using the three or four 
adjacent buds nearest the point to which the tree was cut back at 
planting is defective. It is much better not to cut back so far at 



THE EFFECTS OF PRUNING 



123 







Results of cutting back to longer and shorter stems. 

Apricot and cherry trees twelve years old, showing results of cutting back to 
longer and shorter stems at planting, in 1897, as an experiment in head form. 



124 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



planting, but to leave a longer trunk, keep a greater distance be- 
tween the main branches and still have the lowest branch as near 
the ground as before, thus securing a tree which is practically as 
low as that secured by the old method of starting. This point will 
be enforced by illustrations. 

HOW TO SECURE THE DESIRABLE FORM 

For the benefit of the inexperienced reader, it will be well to 
illustrate the steps by which the form of tree found so generally 
desirable is to be attained. 

Cutting Back at Planting. — This has been shown on page 116 to 
be essential to strong growth of the transplanted tree. It is also the 
prime act in securing a tree with a low head and strong branches. 
Formerly trees were cut back farther than desirable and the branches 
allowed to crowd each other, as has just been stated. It is better to 
retain twenty-four inches of stem than twelve inches — providing 
care is taken during the first summer to prevent, by pinching, the 
growth of too many branches near together. Allow those to grow 
which are more distant from each other on the stem and pinch the 
intervening shoots. In this way one can have the lowest branch 
at six inches from the ground in the hot valleys if desired, or twelve 
inches in the coast valleys, and the highest branch at eighteen or 






Pruning for branch spacing. 

Yearling apple marked to cut back for greater 
or less space between main branches; also first 
year's growth from each beginning marked for first 
winter pruning. 



RULES FOR WINTER PRUNING 



125 



twenty-four inches. This gives about twice the distance between 
the main branches which was formerly allowed, and it is of vast 
advantage to the strength of the tree. The illustrations of this fact 
are from trees planted by the writer in 1887 to test this matter. At 
this date they are large trees and show the forms of heads resulting 
from different spacing of branches on the young trees during the 
first summer's growth. 

First, then, cut back the tree just after planting, as shown in the 
engraving, deciding first at what height you wish your trees to form 
heads, and cut them all back as uniformly as possible and still secure 
a good bud just below the point of cutting. To preserve these buds 
the trees should be handled' carefully while removing from the 
nursery and during planting. 

If the tree has already grown laterals where the head is desired, 
three or four of these properly placed on the stem may be selected 
to form the main branches, shortened in to the sound bud nearest the 
stem, and other laterals, not desired to form the head, removed. 
This treatment is shown in the engraving of a young peach tree well 
branched in the nursery. If all the laterals on the young tree have 
started out above where the head is desired, as is sometimes the 
case, it may be necessary to remove the whole top, and usually 
others will start below afterwards. If there are no buds visible on 
the stem at the place where the head is desired, the choice 
must be made between heading" the tree higher up, where the 
buds are, or cutting back without regard to buds, trusting 
to the development of latent buds at the right place, or to 
the growth of a shoot from below, which can be cut back to form a 
head the following year. It is for this reason, among others, that 
planters prefer a yearling tree which has not branched, but has good 
buds all along the stem. Peaches and apricots usually branch in 
the nursery but usually have dormant buds at the bases, of such 
branches which can be employed in making new growth where it is 
desired. 

After cutting back at planting, the shoots desired to form the 
head are allowed to make their full growth without interference. 
All shoots not desired for branches are 'pinched off after growing out 
two or three inches, leaving a bunch of leaves to shade the trunk 
and contribute to its stouter growth. Constant watchfulness is 
necessary to pinch off undesirable branches all the first summer. 

First Pruning. — In the winter following planting, the shoots of 
the previous season's growth are cut back to about ten or twelve 
inches from their junction with the stem. Some prefer to cut 
shorter, but this is apt to huddle the branches too close together 
when they get old and stout. Growers, however, do not agree on the 
exact length which these future main branches should be left at the 
first pruning. 



126 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



If, during the first summer's growth, all shoots except the num- 
ber desired to form the head have been pinched back, the first winter 
pruning consists only in cutting back the main branches. If laterals 
have grown on the parts of these branches which are to be left on the 
tree, they should be cut back to a bud or two. This is better than 
removing them entirely, for the next summer they will be pinched 
after throwing out a few leaves to shade and thicken tiie branches, 
just as the short growths left the previous summer serve the main 
stem. 

Second Pruning. — During the second summer it is usual to allow 
two branches to grow from each of the main branches left at the pre- 
vious winter pruning, and to pinch off all others, as described. 
These branches are allowed to run out their full growth, except 
where excessive growth is made, and then it is repressed by summer 
pruning. This is done with the apricot in the warmer parts of the 
State, as will be considered at length in the chapter on that fruit. 
Usually, however, the main branches are untouched during the sec- 
ond summer's growth unless some are running out so far as to make 
the tree lop-sided. During the following winter the main branches 
are cut back from one-half to two-thirds of the growth they have 
made, and if too many strong laterals have grown below this point, 
some are shortened, others are removed entirely where they are apt 
to cross or crowd each other or to interfere with cultivation. It is 
not desirable, however, that all small growth should be cleanly 
removed. Some of these small shoots will bear a little fruit and the 
leaf action is in any case desirable as a contributor to the strength of 
the larger branches to which they are attached. Besides, they serve 
to shade the bark from sunburn. 

Third Pruning. — When the tree reaches its third winter pruning, 
its form is well outlined, and early-bearing trees like the peach, apri- 
cot, almond, Japanese plum, etc., will give the grower a respectable 
crop the next season. To bear this crop greater care should be 
taken at the third winter pruning to leave the small laterals low 
down on the main branches, for on them, clustered close in the head 
of the tree, most of the first crop will be found. Though some trees, 
as stated, do bear earlier than the third summer, the fruit is not 
usually considered of commercial account until the third summer. 
An engraving is given of a peach tree just after its second winter 
pruning. It is a very good representative of the vase-form of a tree 
as grown in California. It has four main branches, each issuing 
from a different point on the stem, each permitted to carry two 
main branches, which are not arranged around the circumference, 
but some of them tending toward the center. At the third pruning 
more shoots have been left than are required by the rule, for, start- 
ing with four -main branches, there are usually sixteen left at the 
third pruning. 



STRONG TREES FROM A RIGHT START 



127 



PRUNING BEARING TREES 

Three winter prunings of deciduous trees usually establish their 
permanent form, and subsequent pruning is chiefly directed toward 
the retention of that form; for strength of branch and stem; for 
renewal of bearing wood ; for regulation of amount of bear- 
ing wood; for relative light and shade, and for convenience 
in cultivation and other orchard work. Naturally, these ends 
are sought according to the needs and habits of different fruits, 
and the methods of attaining them will be discussed in the chapters 
treating of these fruits. There are, however, certain general con- 
siderations which are proper in this connection : 

Pruning during the dormancy of the tree induces greater growth 
of wood during the following summer; pruning during the active 
period reduces wood growth and promotes fruit-bearing. The 
amount of wood removed during the dormant period will make the 
summer growth of wood proportionately stronger. Whether the 
total weight of wood growth would be greater may be questioned, 
but the effective wood growth is certainly greater. Whether the 
feet of new wood grown on a peach tree cut back to stumps in the 
winter would be greater in weight than all the inches of growth 
which would be scattered all over the surface of the tree if not cut 




Yearling peach. Cut back at planting. First summer's growth in the 

orchard. 

These sketches, and those on pages 98 and 99, represent the progress of the 
peach tree frorn a branched yearling to bearing form entering the third summer, 



128 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



back, may be doubted, but the new growth secured by cutting back 
will be of immense vigor and the following year will bear large fruit, 
while the new growth on the tree not cut back will be thin and short 
and the fruit absent or indifferent. The weaker the tree or the 
branch or the twig of the tree, the greater the part of it to be 
removed when dormant to get the stronger new growth. 

In the case of fruit trees in vigorous growth pruning during the 
active period or allowing the wood to go uncut during the dormant 
period, having the same effect, viz., the promotion of fruiting. Some 





First winter pruning. 



Second summer growth in orchard. 



trees, like apricots and peaches, which bear upon new laterals, will 
bear fruit even though heavily winter-cut, if these small laterals 
are retained on the lower parts of the main branches. Some other 
trees, like the prune, which bear on spurs, will delay the formation 
of spurs if heavily winter-cut. These two facts suggest two diverse 
policies in pruning bearing trees : A peach tree unpruned will 
reduce its crop for lack or weakness of new laterals ; a prune tree too 
severely winter-pruned will reduce its crop for lack of old spurs. 
Again, some fruits, or varieties of fruits, bear chiefly upon the tips, 
others chiefly upon the lateral spurs ; shortening one reduces the 
crop largely ; shortening the other may increase the marketable 
crop by decreasing the aggregate number. These and other similar 
facts suggest that pruning bearing trees, to be intelligently pursued, 



HOW TO PRUNE FOR KFfECTS 



129 



must be accompanied with the fullest possible knowledge of the 
bearing habit of the fruit or variety thereof. 

Cutting back or "shortening in" should be done in a way which 
will reduce the burst of new shoots near the cut. This is measurably 
secured by always cutting the branch at a strong lateral, because the 
sap flow into this lateral prevents undue pressure and forcing of 
latent buds in the vicinity of the cut. For this reason the cutting 
back of all branches to a certain definite height is wrong. Trees 




Second winter pruning in orckard. 



shorn across at a certain line become thick as a brush with top 
shoots which require extensive thinning, or the bearing wood will 
soon be all at that level through failure of the densely-shaded bear- 
ing wood below. Cut to the nearest lateral below the line you wish 
to approximate, and shorten the lateral if desirable, and the result 
will be fewer and stronger shoots than from a stub-cut. 

In the treatment of bearing trees the main effort should generally 
be toward thinning or reducing the number of bearing shoots. This 
is related to the important work of thinning the fruit to reduce the 
burden of the tree, and will be mentioned again in that connection. 
The work has, however, a bearing beyond the size of the individual 
fruit specimens, It involves the whole future of the tree as a profit- 



130 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



able affair. An unthinned tree becomes a thicket of small, weak, and 
dying laterals and spurs. An attempt to cure this afterwards by- 
sawing out many large branches is only partially successful, though 
perhaps the best thing that can be done after such condition has been 
allowed to exist. The only way to keep the interior of the tree full 
enough of strong, bearing wood is to resolutely and regularly thin 
out surplus shots as the tree advances in age and size. This work 
is as important with trees which are not regularly cut back, as with 
those which are thus treated. It is one of the most vital as well as 
the most generally neglected item in orchard practice. 

In thinning out lateral bearing shoots seldom leave more than 
one at any point ; select the strongest ; remove the rest close to the 
branch. When a new shoot springs out at the base of an older one 
remove the older one ; when a new shoot breaks out on the side of an 
older one cut the older one back to that point. In thinning always 
reject the older, weaker laterals or spurs. This does not apply to the 
outbreak of strong suckers or water sprouts below the main 
branches ; they should usually be cleanly cut away unless a new 
main branch is desirable. 

Pruning of bearing trees should always have regard to the 
removal of branches which have become decrepit through sunburn, 
blight or disease of any kind, frost injury, or in any form die-back 
from whatever cause. Such wood is not only of lessened value, but 
there is also danger of extension of the trouble. Removing such 
wood and training new wood to take its place should always be in 
mind. 

Where cutting of large branches is demanded for any reason it 
should be remembered that the wounds are most quickly healed and 
least injury to the tree is to be apprehended if the cutting is done 
near the beginning of the growing season and not at the beginning 
of the dormant period. 

TIMES FOR PRUNING 

Some changes of view have lately prevailed as to the times, 
within the dormant period, during which winter-pruning can be done 
to the best advantage. Formerly it was thought to be a vital matter 
that no cutting should be done until the leaves had fallen, and this 
is still the prevailing practice, and may prove to be on all accounts 
the best. Recently, however, pruning in autumn, has been quite 
widely practiced. 

Fall Pruning. — There is a time near the end of the active season 
in California when the foliage changes its aspect. There is no 
marked change in color, perhaps, but there is a certain limpness and 
drooping which betokens decided decline in activity. It comes first 
to the early fruits, the cherries and apricots, for instance, and upon 
old trees earlier than young ones. The buds are well formed; the 



GOOD FORMS OF YOUNG TREES 



131 



season's growth apparently complete. There are no frosts to hasten 
the fall of the leaf and it remains in place. Does it render any im- 
portant service ? On the conclusion that it does not, many growers 
begin the winter pruning while the days are longer and ground dry 
and firm rather than delay pruning until the short, dark days and 
rain-soaked soil of December and January render pruning expensive 
and disagreeable. Those trees are first pruned which first assume 
the appearance described, and the work proceeds with other varie- 
ties afterwards until the winter pruning is finished by December 1 — 
about the time when it commonly began under the old practice. Not 
only is more thus accomplished in the same number of days' work, 




Young peach and apple trees, showing branches well spaced on the stems. 

but the orchard is earlier in shape for the winter spraying and culti- 
vation and the grower is ahead of his work and not behind it all the 
season if the season is unusually rainy. Several years' practice of 
this method discloses no bad results except in the one item of 
increasing danger from frost. Vines and trees pruned early in the 
dormant period have a tendency to start growth earlier than those 
pruned late in the dormant period. In places, then, where early 
bloom and fruit-setting are particularly threatened by frost, this 
practice may be undesirable. 

Spring Pruning. — Resting largely upon this matter of retarding 
growth, the practice of pruning very late in the dormant period, or, 
in fact, at the beginning of the growing season, is also gaining wider 
adoption where frost injury is especially feared. It is not actual 



-too CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO .GROW THEM 

freezing, but a drop of two or three degrees below the freezing 
point which is feared, and during recent years such a temperature 
has wrought havoc with some fruits, in early valley regions partic- 
ularly. Later pruning, even after the bloom and foliage have 
appeared, has worked no injury to the trees, but it is less conven- 
iently done than when the trees are free of foliage. 

Summer Pruning. — Summer pruning, to induce bearing, is, as has 
been previously intimated, but little employed in this State, for the 
constant tendency of our trees is to bear early and to overbear. 
Enough has, however, been done in individual cases to show that 
fruit-bearing is promoted by pruning after the chief growth of the 
season has been attained. If the pruning results in forcing out 
laterals late in the season it has been done too early. What is 
desirable is the strengthening or development of fruit buds, and 
this will be accomplished after the energy has been too far dissipated 
to make new wood growth. 

Summer pruning to check the too exuberant wood growth of 
some kinds of trees is employed to some extent, chiefly in the 
warmer parts of the State, where the vegetative process in some' 
trees seems fairly to run riot, and unless checked is apt to ruin the 
tree by breaking to pieces when the wind and weight of fruit test 
its strength. The methods of summer pruning employed in different 
parts of the State for different fruits will be considered in connection 
with the special chapters on these fruits. 

Summer pruning to preserve form is another matter, and relates 
in the main to pinching in, to check undesirable extension and to 
direct the sap toward shoots in which growth is desired. This prac- 
tice is approved by most of our orchardists, and is employed by 
them to a greater or less extent. More people believe in than prac- 
tice it, however, because the summer months, with their long suc- 
cession of fruits to be gathered and shipped or dried, and the addi- 
tional consideration that there is always a scarcity of labor at this 
time, give the orchardist so much work to do that he is more apt to 
confine his "pinching" to a little that he may do now and then when 
he has a few moments' leisure than to do the work thoroughly and 
systematically. The result is that the regular Avinter pruning is the 
main operation for tree shaping in this State. 

There is such a great difference in opinion about summer pruning 
that it will be very difficult to make any assertions about it which 
will not be disputed. Much of this diiference comes, of course, from 
different conditions prevailing in different trees and in different 
parts of the State, and some of these will be met, as already prom- 
ised, in following chapters. Leaving these wholly out of considera- 
tion at this time, it is safe to advise those who wish to secure sym- 
metry or any particular fcrm in any kind of a tree, that they can 
resort to summer pinching with advantage, and can sometimes to 
advantage remove wood too large for the thumb and finger to sever. 



RENEWING OLD TREES 



133 



Constant watchfulness should be maintained for adventitious 
shoots starting out on stem or limb at points where branches are 
not desired. Wherever they start out strongly, they should be 
pinched, or entirely removed, according to the best judgment to be 




Weak tree from ill-spaced branches. 

formed in each case. Suckers, which, properly, according to 
Downing, are "shoots sent up from the root or from parts of the 
stem below the surface of the soil," should be removed whenever 
discovered. 

RENEWING OLD TREES 

Improving and renewing trees by cutting back and grafting 
has already been considered under the head of propagation. It 
is often desirable to renew trees of a satisfactory variety, and this 
is done simply by cutting back when the tree is dormant. Cutting 
back was formerly done early in the winter, before the rise of the 
sap begins, but more recently it has been seen that the exposure 
of large cut surfaces for weeks or months before growth begins, 
lesults in drying and shrinkage of the bark and checking of the 
wood, both of which are avoided by amputation later in the dor- 
mant period or during the early part of the growing season. In 
cutting back, of course, those stumps should be left to support 
new branches which will secure the best balance and symmetry 
in the new head. When the new growth starts, there generally 
appear many more shoots than are desirable, and selection of the 
best-placed and most vigorous should be chosen, the others either 
being rubbed ofif in the bud or pinched back when a few leaves 
are put out. In cutting back trees, the exposed trunk and branch 
stumps should be wrapped in old sacking, or carefully whitewashed 
as protection from sunburn. 

In removing large limbs it is desirable that the cut should 
be made in the right place so as to secure quick covering of the 
scar with new growth. Cutting so as to leave a long stub results 
in an unsightly piece of dead wood on the tree, and this, in decay- 
ing, carries the decay deep into the center of the trunk or branch. 
Cutting too close prevents covering with the new bark, and also 
results in a hole in the branch. Cutting just to the right mark, 



134 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



which is the outer edge of the little collar or swelling which will 
be found at the base of all branches, enables the wound to grow 
over quickly, and if the Avound is properly treated when cut, there 
will be no decay, and the wound will soon be obliterated. 

In amputating large branches, an undercut with the saw should 
be made first so that the bark shall not be torn as the branch 
falls. Another good way is to saw off first at a distance from the 
final cut and then saw ofif smoothly at the right place when the 
weight is removed. 

Trees often become "hide-bound," as it is called. Especially 
in this dry climate the bark gets dry and tough, therefore can 
not expand in proportion to the growth of the tree, or supply 
the amount of sap necessary for the demand. Slitting such trees 
here and there up and down the trunk and main limbs with a 
sharp knife seems to have good effect, for often in three months 
the cut opens half an inch, and a fine, clear bark, with an increase 
of growth, results. On old trees, too, there is often a growth of 
moss and lichens which should be removed. This can be done 
by scraping off the rough, loose bark and spraying with an alka- 
line wash, composed of one pound of caustic soda or potash to 
six gallons of water. If scale insects are present, the lime, salt 
and sulphur spray should be used, as will be described in the 
chapter on injurious insects. This will remove the parasites, 
give the trees a clean, bright bark and contribute to their vigor. 

PRUNING TOOLS 

There is some difference of opinion as to the comparative 
value of the pruning knife and the pruning shears. The knife, 
if sharp, and well used, makes a smooth cut, with no bruising of 
the bark, and such a wound heals over perfectly. The shears, if 
of good pattern and sharp, also make a very good cut, but there 
is always some little injury to the bark on the side opposite to the 
entry of the blade. On small cuts, say three-quarters of an inch 
or less, if the blade is kept very sharp, the resistance does not 
make sufficient injury to the bark to seriously consider, and the 
speed with which the shears can be used renders them the main 
reliance for all the smaller pruning. Nearly all styles of hand 
shears are used in this State. 

There are, also, two-hand shears, which are very powerful, 
and enable one to work very quickly. When kept well sharpened 
they are very effective tools. There are a number of styles in 
use, both home-made and imported. 

Still another arrangement of shears is mounted on a pole, the 
cutting blade being operated by a cord, and having a spring to 
throw the blade back. The pole is jointed, so that one or more 
lengths can be used. With this device one can stand on the ground 
and shorten in the top shoots of a tree very handily. 



CUTTING AND COVERING 



135 



For larger cuts than can be made with the pruning knife or 
one-hand shears, there are pruning saws of different styles, of 
which two styles are chiefly used. One has a frame made of the 
best spring steel, constructed somewhat on the plan of a butcher's 
saw, except that the saw blade is much narrower; and instead of 
being stationary, it revolves so that the pruner is enabled to adjust 
the blade to cut at any angle, as is often necessary to do when 
cutting where limbs grow close together, and where it would be 
impossible to use an ordinary saw of a wider blade. The blade 
is only one-fourth to one-half inch wide, and therefore not liable 
to get pinched in the cut. Strength is imparted by a tension 
screw under the handle, which tightens the blade. The blade is 
easily detached by slackening the tension screw, and lifting the 
blade out of the slot in the clutches at each end. The blade can 
be thus reversed and made to cut with a push or a pull, as may 
be desired. 

Another popular saw is the curved pruning saw, with twelve 
and fourteen-inch blades, which cuts with a pull. 

During recent years it has been possible to find quite full 
assortments of pruning tools at the hardware and general mer- 
chandise stores in all our fruit districts where these devices can 
be compared and selection made according to individual preference, 
for there can be no best tools for all men and all uses. 

CUTTING TO A BUD 

Whatever may be used to make the cut, it is important to 
sever the twig or shoot at that distance from a wood bud which 
gives that bud the best chance to grow well, and at the same 
time facilitates the healing and complete obliteration of the scar. 
Cutting too far from the bud leaves a stub which dies back, and is 
likely to carry decay into the pith and thence down into the limb. 
Cutting too close to the bud or carrying the slope down too far 
behind it, does not give it enough live wood to carry it, and it 
makes a weak growth. 

Cutting to inside buds with trees of spreading habit, and to 
outside buds with upright growers, or to a side bud when lateral 
extension is desired, should always be remembered as a means of 
throwing new growth in the direction demanded by symmetry 
and equal occupation of the space allotted to the tree. This is 
one respect in which study of the habit of the tree suggests proper 
practice. 

COVERING WOUNDS 

Whenever wood is cut with so great diameter that it will 
not grow over in one season, the wound should be coated with 
something to keep the wood from checking and decaying. It has 



136 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



been amply demonstrated by California experience that smooth- 
paring of the cut made by shears or saw is a waste of time. Large 
wounds should, however, be covered to prevent checking of the 
wood and drying back of bark edges. Nothing is better or cheaper 
for this covering than lead and oil paint, a little thicker than 
for ordinary use, and applied sparingly, so that it will not run 
down the bark. 

GATHERING UP PRUNINGS 

Gathering up prunings for burning is tedious and expensive, 
and several efforts have been made to substitute machinery for 
hand labor. Anderson's Brush Rake, invented by W. C. Anderson, 
of San Jose, has been used to some extent. It readily gathers all 
kinds of tree and vine brush, compresses it considerably and is 
easily discharged of its load by a slight lift while still going 
forward. It is said to save about one-half the cost of hand raking. 
Brush is often gathered into windrows by the use of horse rakes 
borrowed from the hay field. 

Baling Prunings. — There is a fuel value in prunings which has 
become more clear since pumping for irrigation is so widely prac- 
ticed, but loose prunings are too expensive in handling. T. G. 
Rogers, of Winters, has contrived a "brush baler." It is a large 
strong saw horse inverted, to which is bolted a long, heavy lever. 
Attached to a cross piece on the lever are four heavy tines bent 
in a semi-circle. The saw horse is filled with brush, the lever 
is then pulled down and fastened by a ratchet brake, the brush 
is forced into a small, compact bundle, and when bound with wire 
makes a bundle easily handled by the fireman. 

THINNING FRUIT 

Intimately connected with the pruning of bearing trees, is the 
thinning of the fruit or proper spacing of the individual fruits 
so that each shall have space and sap to allow its attainment of 
satisfactory marketable size. It has been fully demonstrated that 
no demand is profitable which will be content with the undersized 
fruit from an overladen tree. The superior price for good-sized 
fruit for all uses, not excluding drying, is unquestionable ; the 
total weight secured may be variable as between thinned and 
unthinned trees, but it can be accepted as an indisputable fact 
that any increase of weight there may be upon an unthinned tree 
will not be nearly an equivalent for the loss in value. It is the 
conclusion of our largest and most successful growers that, large 
as is the expenditure required for careful and systematic thinning 
of fruit. It is the most directly profitable outlay which they have 
to make for orchard maintenance. 




137 



138 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Objects in View in Fruit Thinning. — But thinning fruit has 
objects beyond the vakie of the visible crop which it makes profit- 
able. No overburdened tree can discharge the twofold summer 
duty of every cultivated fruit-bearing tree, which is to perfect this 
season's fruit and lay a good strong foundation for next year's 
bearing. If the tree, after fruit gathering, has not the strong, 
vigorous foliage to complete the formation of fruit buds for the 
following year, there will either be a lack of bloom or a show of 
bloom unfit to set, and the tree will Avork for itself next year, and 
not for you, because this 3'^ear you would not work for it. In 
this particular, thinning fruit coincides in purpose with pruning 
to limit the amount of bearing wood, which has already been 
considered. 

Other objects there are also which are related directly to the 
profit of orcharding and should command respect from the most 
careless. The following is an emphatic statement of the case :* 

There are at least six ways in which growers are repaid for thinning 
peaches, nectarines or apricots designed for drying: 

First: You can thin off half the fruit when small quicker than you could 
pick it when large, and when mature the time required to fill a basket de- 
pends mainly upon the number of peaches it holds. 

Second: It takes just as long to cut and spread on a drying tray a small 
peach as a large one. It takes longer to cut eight peaches that will weigh a 
pound than to cut three and pick off five when they are little. 

Third: If peaches run six to the pound the weight of pits will not vary 
much from that of the cured fruit. If they run three to the pound, they will 
weigh not much over half. A ton of large peaches is as likely to yield 400 
pounds of dried as a ton of small fruit of the same variety to yield 300 
pounds. It means a difference of about $8.00 per ton in the value of the fresh 
fruit to the dryer. It will cost over $t.oo per ton to thin a heavily laden 
peach orchard in a way to make that difference. 

Fourth: Granted that you leave fruit to reach the same weight at ma- 
turity, still you leave it along the body and in places on the limbs where the 
weight has no breaking leverage and take it off the ends where it may get 
sun-burned and is almost sure to break the tree. 

Fifth : Vitality drawn from the plant and certain elements of fertility 
from the soil, are in proportion to the number of seeds matured. The pulp 
cuts little figure except in aerial substances and water. 

Sixth : Suppose that fruit dried from peaches that weigh three to the 
pound only brings one cent a pound more than that from peaches half that 
size. Two cents would more accurately measure the difference in value. 
Still, the smaller figure is enough to meet the whole cost of picking and haul- 
mg or of cutting and drying in any vv^ell-managed establishment. 

When to Thin Fruit. — Thinning of fruit should begin with the 
winter pruning of bearing trees, as has been already urged in con- 
nection with regulating the amount of bearing wood allotted to 
each tree. After this is carefully done, there is the thinning of 
bloom, which is urged on the ground of least possible loss of 
energ}' by the tree in the partial development of fruit to be sub- 
sequently removed. Hand-thinning of individual blooms is im- 
practicable on .a commercial scale, but the removal of spurs or 

* Condensed from F. S. Chapin. 



THINNING FRUIT 



•139 



twigs, or shortening of them with shears, is feasible enough. The 
objection must He in the fact that profusion of bloom does not 
necessarily indicate an excessive set of fruit, and any severe reduc- 
tion of bloom is, therefore, venturesome unless one is fully assured 
by local experience of the habit of the variety under treatment. 
Reduction of the amount of fruit itself is, therefore, the only 
safe proceeding, and this should not, as a rule, be undertaken 
until the first drop, through lack of pollination, has taken place. 
Even at greater theoretical loss of energy to the tree, it is better 
to err on the side of thinning a little too late than too early 
in order to secure the fullest assurance possible of the permanent 
burden which the tree assumes. Where spring frosts are likely 
to occur they afford additional reason for delay. If surety of the 
local conditions comes before the pits harden in the young fruit 
it is fortunate for the tree, but even after that it is still a greater 
saving to the tree and assurance of profit to the grower to reduce 
the fruit to a proper amount than to permit overbearing. 

The Practice of Thinning. — If the tree has not been sufificiently 
relieved of an excess of bearing wood during the winter pruning 
and has made a very heavy set of fruit, thinning with the shears 
by cutting out whole spurs or short bearing shoots, or even short- 
ening in longer Hmbs, cutting always to a lateral when possible, 
is of no appreciable injury to the tree. After all the shear-work 
possible is done, the spacing of the fruits on the twigs and branches 
must be provided for. This was done in early days by beating 
the tree with a pole, and some still maintain that they can use 
the pole to advantage. The almost universal practice, however, 
is to use the hand in plucking or pushing oft' the small fruit. This 
is done very quickly by experienced workmen. If the trees are 
low, as they should be, most of the work can be done from the 
ground. It is best to work in vertical spaces and take all that 
can be reached from top to bottom without changing position; 
then move a step or two and take another vertical strip, and so on. 

The distance which should be left between specimens depends 
upon conditions. It is as ujisatisfactory to thin by rule of inches 
as it is to prune by such a rule. The space to each fruit depends 
upon the kind, the age, vigor and strength of the tree, the size 
and thrift of the lateral or spur which carries the fruit, the moisture 
supply, the richness of the soil, etc. It also depends upon what 
use is to be made of the fruit, because it is possible to have some 
fruit which is too large for certain demands, though this objection 
does not often arise. The strength of the shoot is perhaps the 
most easily appreciable factor. With peaches, for instance, a 
shortened lateral one-eighth of an inch in diameter should only 
carry one peach, while one one-quarter of an inch in diameter might 
mature four good large fruits. It vvould evidently be wrong to 



140' 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



work for an arbitrary inch-distance on all sorts of shoots, and it 
will be seen to be just as irrational if it be applied without regard 
to the other conditions of the tree. If, however, a rule must be 
had, let it be this, that the distance between the fruit shall be 
two and one-half times the diameter desired in the fruit. This 
would fix an arbitrary distance, then, of four to six inches for 
apricots and six to eight inches for peaches — with other fruits 
according to their respective sizes, and the late varieties with 
greater distance than early. 

Any such standard, however, considers only the size of the 
fruit, not the strength of the tree, and therefore stops short of 
one of the important ends of thinning, to conserve the strength 
of the tree for next season's fruiting. Fruits might be thus spaced 
and still the tree be overladen, because it may be carrying 
too many bearing shoots. Calculate the burden of the tree in 
this way, for instance : Peaches which weigh three to the pound 
are of fair marketable size ; sixty such peaches will fill an ordinary 
peach-box of twenty pounds ; ten to twelve such boxes is fruit 
enough for a good bearing tree six to ten years of age. ' Now count 
the little peaches you have left on one main branch and its laterals, 
which ought to be about one-tenth of the tree, and thin down to 
about sixty. By doing a few trees in this way and thinking of the 
relation of the bearing wood to the fruit, one will soon get a con- 
ception of the proper degree of thinning, and proceed to realize 
it as rapidly as the fingers can fly along the branch. 

It is seldom desirable to divide doubles in peaches ; pull both 
off or leave both on, as they may be needed or not to make the 
load of the tree. Clusters of apples or pears should often be reduced 
to singles, except where size is apt to be too great. 

All kinds of fruit are clearly subject to increase of size by 
thinning, but it is with only the larger fruits that the practice 
prevails at present. The dividing line seems to lie upon the prune. 
With this fruit thinning is only done by pruning the tree for the 
reduction of the number of bearing branches, while with some 
shipping plums hand thinning is practiced. Growers are still 
striving for a prune naturally of larger size rather than to have 
recourse to thinning. 

The practice of thinning partially at first, trusting to further 
removal of fruit later if too much of it survives the natural drop 
and various accidents, is followed by some growers, but the rule 
is to finish at one operation. 



CHAPTER XIII 
CULTIVATION 

It was demonstrated very early in California experience in 
fruit growing-, that "clean culture" is generally the proper treat- 
ment for trees and vines during the proper season, at least. 
Though the frequent stirring of the soil and the eradication of 
grass and weeds have been advocated by certain horticulturists 
for generations and have recently been demonstrated to be desirable 
by careful comparative experiments, it has nowhere secured such 
wide adherence as in California. It may even be held to be an 
essential to successful growth of tree and vine in most soils and 
situations in California, and the several advantages of clean culture 
are intensified under our conditions. 

Chief of these advantages is the maintenance of the soil in a 
condition favoring root growth, and the main feature of this con- 
dition is the retention of the moisture, though regulation of summer 
temperature in the soil is also involved. Where moisture-retention 
is not the chief concern, because of ample irrigation facilities, 
and the moderation of soil temperature is of greater moment, a 
summer-growing cover crop may be of benefit to the trees. In 
irrigated districts of excessive heat and dry air this policy may 
prevail, but it will be only the exception to the rule of clean culture. 

Retaining Moisture by Cultivation. — It is a familiar fact that 
Avater will rise in a tube of exceeding small diameter very much 
higher than the surface of the body of water in which the tube is 
held upright. The water rises by capillary attraction. A compact 
soil has extending through it,, minute spaces, formed by the partial 
contact of its particles, which facilitate the rise of water from 
moist layers below, in accordance with the same principle which 
causes the water to rise in the capillary tube. This movement 
IS constantly going on in firm soil, and as fast as the top layer 
is robbed of its moisture by evaporation, the water rises from 
below and it too is evaporated. During the long, dry summer, 
the water rises and is evaporated from a depth of several feet 
4n -some- -soils, a-nd the earth, beneath the baking sun heat, becomes 
"dry as a brick." 

When a soil is broken up by cultivation, capillarity is tempo- 
rarily destroyed through the disturbed layer, because the particles 
are so separated that the mutual connection of the minute inter- 
spaces no longer exists. But if it be roughly broken up, so that 
the disturbed layer takes the form of coarse clods, the air has free 
access to the upper surface of the firm soil beneath them, in which 

141 



]^42 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

the capillary condition still exists, and evaporation proceeds in 
the same way, though in a somewhat less degree, as if there had 
been no cultivation. It becomes evident, then, that the pulver- 
ization of the disturbed layer must be so complete that the particles 
are separated and capillarity destroyed, and, farther, that the free 
access of air to the lower point, where capillarity exists, must be 
prevented. This is accomplished by the fine loose earth which 
acts as a mulch. When this is attained, only that moisture in the 
upper surface which comes in immediate contact with the air is 
evaporated, and the balance is retained for the use of the plant. 
Plants growing, then, in a well-cultivated soil, have the water 
in the lower soil held for their use, and as fast as they use it 
the supply is replaced through the firm soil below, which evapora- 
tion being stopped, remains moist and permeable by roots which 
extent freely, seeking the nourishment they need. 

Such is a brief outline of the theory which explains the results 
gained by thorough cultivation of the soil, so far, at least, as reten- 
tion of moisture is concerned. The practical demonstration is easy. 
Go into a well-cultivated orchard or vineyard, push aside the 
soil Avith the foot, and moisture will be found two or three inches 
from the surface, or even less in some soils, while on uncultivated 
land adjacent, digging to the depth of several feet will show nothing 
but hard earth, baked and arid. In such hard-baked earth, more- 
over, the sun heat is conveyed or conducted downward very rapidly 
during a hot day, so that in some cases the roots are seriously 
injured. When the surface is well tilled, it will act like a blanket, 
preventing a too rapid conveyance of heat downward, and thus 
also diminishing the intensity of evaporation. 

Accurate demonstration of these facts has recently been secured 
as the result of many moisture determinations in cultivated and 
uncultivated soil by the University of California Agricultural 
Experiment Station.* Very striking exhibition of the condition 
of trees with and without cultivation is found in the engravings 
which are reproduced herewith. Upon the demonstration, the 
practice in the uncultivated orchard was radically changed. The 
exact deterrhination of moisture present at various depths of the 
soil beneath these contrasted orchards in the month of July is as 
follows : 

Cultivated. Uncultivated. 

Depth in soil. Per cent. Tons per acre. Per cent. Tons per acre. 

First foot 6.4 

Second foot 5.8 

Third foot 6.4 

Fourth foot 6.5 

Fifth foot 6.7 

Sixth foot 6.0 

Totals, six feet 6.3 756 4.2 512 



128 


4.3 


86 


116 


4.4 


88 


128 


3.9 


78 


130 


5.1 


102 


134 


3.4 


68 


120 


4.5 


90 



•Bulletin 121. 



METHODS OF CULTIVATION 



143 



This shows a gain of nearly fifty per cent of soil moisture by 
cultivation. 

Necessity of Adequate Cultivation. — It has been very fully 
demonstrated by California experience that adequate depth of tilth 
must be attained. The depth of cultivation, or the thickness of 
the dust-mulch, as some like to call it, must be sufficient to prevent 
the access of the dry air to the firm soil below. At the East, where 
they have a moister air, a thin mulch may answer ; but in California, 
with a thirsty air for such a protracted period, there must be 
deeper tilth. Two or three inches of dust spread over a hard-pan 
layer^ formed in some soils by cultivation, will not retain moisture 
well in California. The cultivator should go twice that depth, 
ordinarily, and then the result will be accomplished if it is done 
frequently enough to prevent the re-firming of the surface by 
atmospheric moisture or by the rise of moisture from below. The 
exact significance of depth in the loose, surface layer has also 
been demonstrated by moisture determination in the subsoil at 
different points by the California Experiment Station, as follows : 



Percentage of moisture 


in cultivated loam soil. 




Depth. 

Three inches 

Six inches 


Niles. Santa Maria. 
5.4 5.3 
6.3 8.5 


Ventura. 
8.3 
9.3 



These may be accepted, probably, as average results : Varia- 
tion may occur in soils of difterent characters. The capillarity in 
a heavy soil is vastly greater than in a light soil. The difficulty of 
securing a pulverized surface layer is also greater in the heavy 
soil. The poorer the pulverization, the deeper the layer must be. 
Naturally, then, growers' practice will vary. The rule will remain 
that there must be depth enough to secure effective protection 
of the firm soil beneath from agencies promoting evaporation. 

Loss of Moisture by Weed Growth. — One of the most active 
agencies for the exhaustion of moisture from the subsoil is the 
growth of weeds. To cultivate the soil in winter and spring, and 
then to allow a summer growth of weeds to "shade the soil" is 
a great error. Although under the cover of rank weeds moisture 
may appear even at the surface and convey the impression of 
moisture-saving, the fact is, as fully demonstrated by experience 
and actual experiment, the moisture in the lower layers of the 
soil is reduced and trees are thus robbed of their supply. Weed 
growth must be resolutely suppressed during the dry season. 

Moisture Storage in the Soil. — Conservation of moisture in the 
soil is not only the surety of the current season's growth and 
fruitfulness, but is the safeguard against injury from the years of 
deficient rainfall which occur now and then in California. The 



1^4 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM / 

moisture supply is equalized by this storage in the soil, and a 
surplus from the liberal rainfall of one 3^ear is held over to supply 
the lack of the next. Of course, the well-cultivated surface is also 
well calculated to catch water. While from a hard surface much 
of a heavy rainfall flows off quickly to a lower level before it 
can penetrate, a loose soil, if sufficiently deep, retains all that falls 
upon it, except the excess, which disappears by drainage. 

It has sometimes been held by California orchardists that plant- 
ing some tall-growing crop, like corn, so as to shade the young 
tree and the ground around it, is an advantage. This is a great 
mistake. Though some rich, moist soils may afford moisture 
enough to grow both the tree and the corn, it is a fact that in most 
cases the growth of the corn is made at the expense of the tree, 
and sometimes almost costs its life and thrift. It has been amply 
shown by investigation that though shading ground by a leafy 
growth may make the surface layer of the soil moister, the lower 
layers are invariably made drier, and it is in these lower layers 
that the tree seeks its sustenance. The young tree should be 
shaded as has been described in the chapter on planting, and not 
by a growing plant. 

GROWING CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES 

The possible advantage of a cover growth of clover in regions 
of high heat and ample moisture has been noted at the opening of 
this chapter. The rule, however, must be : Grow nothing what- 
ever between the trees if you desire the full success of the latter. 
As with all rules, this one may admit of exceptions. 

Inter-cultures in orchard or vineyard may be allowed under 
certain conditions of the soil and the purse of the grower. If 
the soil is deep and moist and rich, the cost of planting and culti- 
vation, and sometimes more, may be made by growing a crop 
among young trees. Of course, if irrigation is available, much 
more can be done in this direction than if dependent upon natural 
supplies of water. 

There is much difference as to crops in amount of injury they 
may do to the trees. Growing alfalfa, without irrigation, has 
been known to kill out an orchard. Grain is less dangerous, but 
still is objectionable, both because of exhaustion of soil and 
moisture, and because of danger to trees from heat deflected from 
straw and stubble. The crops least injurious, because of their 
requirements, and because of the constant cultivation of them, 
checks the loss of moisture by evaporation, are corn, beans, pota- 
toes, beets, carrots, etc., squashes, and other members of the melon 
family, onions, and other shallow-rooting vegetables. In the 
growth of these, however, there should be a width of several feet 
of well-cultured soil on all sides of the tree, unoccupied. 



CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES ]^45 

In soils exceptionally rich and deep, and where rainfall is 
abundant, inter-cultures of small fruits or vegetables may be carried 
on for a long series of years with profit both from the trees and 
the inter-culture. In similar deep, rich soils, with irrigation, 
immense crops of small fruits and vegetables, even as high as 
twelve to twenty-four tons of tomatoes per acre have been taken 
from between orchard rows, and one hundred and fifty sacks of 
onions per acre from between the rows of a strawberry plantation. 
In Ventura County some fields of lima beans, in favorable years, 
have paid over $70 per acre — grown between young trees. In 
other parts of the State considerable amounts of peas for sale to 
canners are grown between the rows in young orchards. This 
crop is especially desirable when good sale is assured, because the 
plant is hardy and can make a good part of its growth during the 
rainy season and the ground be cleaned up and well cultivated 
early in the summer. As beans. and peas are legumes, their roots 
enrich the soil, as will be noted in the chapter on fertilization. 

How Exhaustion by Inter-Culture May Be Avoided. — But all 

inter-cultures are a loan made by the trees to the orchardist. The 
term may be very long and the rate of interest very small in 
some cases, but sooner or later the trees will need restitution to 
the soil of the plant food removed by inter-cropping. This may 
be accomplished by the use of fertilizers. Still the rule that the 
trees or vines should have all the ground is generally true. It 
is also true that on merely ordinary soils, trusting to rainfall, or 
on shallow soils, trusting in part to irrigation, the trees or vines 
should have the full strength of the land and all the help which 
can be given them in the shape of thorough cultivation. 

METHODS OF CULTIVATION 

In general terms the main objects of cultivation of orchard 
and vineyard are two : Winter cultivation for moisture reception, 
and summer cultivation for moisture retention. 

Wherever early winter plowing can be done without too great 
danger of soil washing, it afifords the best available means of 
admitting water to the great reservoir in the lower levels of a deep 
soil. Too frequently large volumes of rain water, enriched by air- 
washing as it falls and by fine soil-particles as it flows, are allowed 
to run off into the country drainage, with the double loss of fertility 
and moisture to the fruit grower. Deep penetration of winter rains 
should be, in all safe ways, promoted. Cultivation for retention 
has already been strongly urged and is quite generally recognized. 

To serve these main purposes there are two main divisions 
of practice in this State, each of which has variations of greater 
or less importance. 



^Aa CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

.14d 

First : Winter plowing followed by frequent use of cultivator 
and pulverizer in summer. 

Second : Use of cultivator at intervals both winter and summer, 
following, if needed, with pulverizer in the summer. 

The main features of each division of practice, and some of the 
claims by which each method is supported by its advocates, will 
be noted. 

Plowing Orchard and Vineyard. — There is considerable varia- 
tion in the practice of plowing orchard and vineyard, in the kinds 
of plows employed, and the times chosen for the work. Some 
plow but once, toward spring, whenever the ground is in suitable 
condition; and, if there is much growth of weeds and clovers, a 
looped chain is run from the plow to the end of the evener to aid 
in drawing under the tall growth. Sometimes, however, the growth 
gets so rank before the soil is in condition to plow that the weeds 
are mown before plowing. Where but one plowing is done, the 
soil is usually thrown away from the trees and afterwards is leveled 
back by harrowing or cultivating. If this practice is adopted, care 
should be taken that the soil is properly returned about the tree 
roots, for injury is sometimes done by bringing the roots too near 
the surface, which is soon afterwards intensely heated by the sun- 
shine. 

It is undoubtedly better practice to plow earlier, when the 
green stufif gets a good start, but is still not too high to turn under 
handily. In this practice the weed stems are less woody, and 
they easily decay and act as a fertilizer. Where early plowing 
is practiced, it is usual to plow again when the second growth of 
weeds reaches the proper state in the spring. When two plowings 
are given, the earth is usually thrown away from the trees in the 
first plowing, and returned toward the trees in the second plowing. 
But this order is sometimes reversed in situations where rainfall 
is heavy and the soil retentive, for the dead furrow between the 
rows often acts as a surface drain to carry off surplus water, which 
is thus prevented from standing around the tree roots. In all 
modes of plowing it is desirable that before the summer heat comes, 
the surface be leveled as completely as possible. 

Too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of plowing 
when the soil is in good condition and not otherwise. To dis- 
regard this is bad enough in all soils, but it is a grievous mistake 
to work any of the clayey soils when they are out of condition. 
If too wet, they are puddled by the plow and dry down in hard 
clods, impenetrable by air, and even resist water itself for a long 
time. When clods are thus formed, it may require long effort to 
bring the soil back to a good friable condition. The cultivation 
of adobe is one .of the problems of California agriculture. The 
more refractory it is, the more particular care is needed to take it 




147 



148 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



when it is in proper condition to work. To work it when perfectly- 
dry is simply impossible, and if it is plowed when too wet and sticky, 
it becomes hard, lumpy, and altogether unmanageable. The con- 
dition which favors best results by tillage must be learned by 
experience. 

Another mistake, apt to be made where the orchard or vineyard 
is but one of the branches of a mixed farm, is to put aside the 
plowing until all the field work is done, and in some seasons the 
soil in the orchard has become so dry that it turns up in large 
clods, which are afterwards partially reduced by the harrow, but 
never put in the fine tilth which should be secured for the retention 
of moisture and otherwise to encourage the growth and productive- 
ness of the trees. 

Breaking up Hard-pan. — Those who advocate the use of the 
plow, claim several advantages for it. The chief is that more 
thorough tilth can be secured. Iji most, but not all soils, there is 
formed by cultivation an artificial hard-pan at whatever depth the 
implement attains, if this depth be kept the same for many succes- 
sive cultivations. This hard-pan, in some soils at least, becomes 
impervious to water and is otherwise an injury to the growth of 
the trees. It occurs in irrigated and unirrigated land alike, but 
probably is more quickly formed by irrigation. When continuous 
summer cultivation is practiced, the hard-pan will be found at 
whatever depth the teeth uniformly reach. The remedy is to plow 
in winter just below this hard-pan layer and thus break it up, 
and then by the action of the air and rains it is reduced, and culti- 
vation may proceed as before. Where the hard-pan is formed by 
the plow, the ground should be plowed shallow one year and 
deeply the next, thus alternating from year to year. 

Green Manuring. — Another advantage in the use of the plow 
IS, as has already been mentioned, the turning under of the growth 
of weeds, grass, and clover as a green manure. Many growers 
attach considerable importance to this, and some, who have 
orchards in which winter growth has been killed out by long culti- 
vation, are seeking for a quickly-growing crop which they can 
sow with the first rains and secure growth enough to turn under 
with the winter plowing. This consideration will be farther pre- 
sented in the chapter on fertilization. 

Plowing Hillside to Prevent Washing. — Where the slope of the 
land is sharp, there is much danger from washing during the rainy 
season, if the hillside is not terraced or furnished with ditches 
carefully laid out on contour lines to carry the water down on a 
gentle grade. The old plan of plowing furrows one above another 
around the hill" to check the flow and let the water down easily, 
is often found treacherous unless one is able to strike good grades, 



AVOIDING INJURY IN CULTIVATION 



149 



because of the liability to collection of water at certain points and 
the subsequent breaking away and washing. Recently some of 
of the foot-hill growers have adopted the plan of plowing furrows 
seven or eight feet apart straight down the hill in the direction of 
its deepest descent. The rainfall is thus distributed over the 
ground so that not much water is collected in any one place and 
the harm done by washing will not amount to much. Hillside 
work differs according to character of soil and of local rainfall and 
conference with experienced men in the region will usually afford 
the beginner the best suggestions of method. In some localities, 
the plowing of a few furrows at intervals to assist in penetration 
and the growth of a cover crop during the winter to assist in bind- 
ing the soil, will be found better than any attempt at the early 
plowing, which may work admirably on level lands. 

The Best Plow. — For plowing orchards and vineyards many 
kinds of ploAvs are used, including the ordinary one and two-horse 
walking plows, single and double sulky or riding plows, and gang 
plows of different kinds. Recently disk plows and harrows have 
become very popular. In several of the leading fruit districts 
there are plows made in the local shops which are patterned to 
meet the different soils prevailing. Which is the best plow is 
a question which can not be answered, it must be determined by 
local conditions, and the best way to get information is to consult 
the experienced cultivators of the locality. 

Avoiding Injury to Trees and Vines. — The great problem is to 
use the plow so as not to injure the trees and vines. Injury to 
the roots is one ground on which those who advocate the banish- 
ment of the plow from orchard and vineyard base their opposition, 
as will appear more fully presently. It is the usual practice to 
run tlie plow shallower when approaching the stem of the tree or 
vine, and this is easily done when using a riding plow or a two- 
horse walking plow between the rows and finishing up near the 
trees with a single-horse walking plow, which is a common practice. 
The injury by the plow, to which especial reference is now made, 
is that to the bark of the tree or to the vine stump. 

Makers of the special orchard and vineyard plows have recently 
made them adjustable so that the plow will work either side of the 
central line of draft, and these improved tools have rendered obso- 
lete the early contrivances for accomplishing the result with com- 
mon field plows. 

Flat Hames and a Spreader. — Among the worst things for use 
among trees are the pointed iron hames which are found on most 
harnesses. They often seriously bark the branches under which 
the horse passes, and should be dispensed with. An arrangement 
widely used consists in having broad leather tugs and hames with 



150 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



only one long iron loop on the swell of the hame. The tug is 
passed around the hame and the end is brought through the iron 
loop from the under side, so that the draft will hold the tug tight 
between the collar and the hame and the end between the iron 
staple and the pulling part of the trace. A spreader is put between 
the tugs ; it is made of a hard-wood stick sixteen to eighteen inches 
long; a hole is bored in each end large enough for a two-inch screw, 
a hole punched in each trace about twelve inches from the rear end, 
and the tugs are screwed to the ends of the spreader, and the ends 
of the tugs attached to the plow clevis. This gives no iron or 
wooden surfaces at all, either on harness or whiffletree, to strike 
the bark. 

Improved Singletrees. — Later than these came the orchard and 
vineyard singletrees, invented and patented by Californians, which 
are widely used and sold in all stores in the fruit growing districts. 

Dispensing with Doubletrees. — Still other inventions which 
admit the use of two horses even close up to the trees, because 
they dispense entirely with whiffletrees and tugs, are known as the 
steel harness, Eastern inventions, which have secured the approval 
of some of our leading growers for use in orchard and vineyard. 
The plow is attached to the steel yoke by a chain running between 
the horses. With them it is possible to work quite close to the 
trees and vines, and is especially desirable in the vineyard in 
working close to the vines when they have grown out about two 
feet, which is a difficult job with the old-style harness. 

SUMMER TREATMENT OF PLOWED ORCHARD AND 

VINEYARD 

Where the orchard or vineyard is plowed twice during the 
winter, the land should remain after the first plowing as the plow 
leaves it. The moistening and aeration during the winter have a 
good effect upon the soil both chemically and mechanically. 

If but one plowing is done, when the chief rains are supposed 
to be over, there must be full effort put forth to reduce the soil to 
good tilth, and to level the surface as much as possible. This is 
done by harrowing with one of the several improved harrows which 
are now generally introduced and found very effective. They act 
in cultivating, clod crushing, and leveling, in a most satisfactory 
manner. They are too well known to need description. Each 
has its advocates and its adaptations to certain soils. As with 
plows, so with harrows and cultivators, the best for one soil may 
not be the best for another, and local inquiry among experienced 
fruit growers will be the best guide for the newcomer. In addi- 
tion to the excellent implements brought from the eastern States, 



CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING 



151 



there are others of California invention and 'manufacture which 
have very marked local adaptations, and almost every fruit region 
in California has some embodiment of local inventive genius in the 
form of implements of tillage. 

The secret of success in handling the heavier soils in spring 
working is to secure as perfect surface pulverization as possible 
without compacting the soil. Light soils need a certain amount 
of firming after plowing, or else there is too free access of air and 
too great drying out. For these and other reasons, the grower 
has to study his soil and learn from observation the methods which 
succeed best with it. The practice which gave success under cer- 
tain conditions might not be well adapted under other conditions. 
The use of the roller is a striking example of this fact. In some 
orchards the roller is a benefit, in others a decided injury. Its 
chief eifect is compacting the surface layer, which is only desirable 
on very coarse open soils. The long-tooth harrow accomplishes 
a very marked compacting of the soil to the depth it reaches and 
often settles the lower layer too closely and causes it to run 
together too solidly if rain follows. The modern cultivators, clod- 
crushers, disk-harrows, etc., are superior in eiTect, each in the 
soil to which its action is most desirable. 

After working down the soil after plowing, the cultivator is 
relied upon to kill the weeds, break up the crust which may form 
after spring rains or after irrigation, and to prevent the compacting 
of the surface layer of the soil from any causes. 

CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING 

There are orchards in California which have not been plowed 
for years — in some cases the plow has not been used since the 
trees were planted. Instances of this kind are to be found both in 
irrigated and unirrigated land. It depends largely upon the me- 
chanical condition and disposition of the soil whether the practice 
will give satisfactory results. It can not be trusted on land prone 
to develop hard-pan, as has already been considered, and yet the 
term "cultivation" has taken such a wide range in this State, and 
the tools have reached such efficiency, that there is not as much 
difference as formerly between the plow and the cultivator, except 
that the former turns the soil and the latter stirs without turning. 
For some who oppose the use of the plow, use a chisel-tooth cul- 
tivator, cutting to a depth of eight inches in the spring, but at 
other times of the year they are not more than half as deep. 
This treatment would tend to dispose of hard-pan. However this 
may be, and what the special nature of their soils, there are fruit 
growers, both in northern and southern California, who have for 
years trusted almost wholly to the cultivator, cutting to a depth 
of three or four inches, and keep their orchards throughout the 
year almost in the same state of tilth, never allowing a weed to 



152 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



grow. This practice is, however, becoming less prevalent, and for 
certain soils the question is practically settled in the minds of nearly 
all orchardists, while for other soils there is still doubt. For 
the heavier soils, which continuous shallow cultivation is apt to 
render too compact, it is necessary to have recourse to the plow to 
open the land for proper aeration and penetration of moisture 
which otherwise would be largely lost by surface run-ofT. The 
lighter soils do not require this and they seem to do well with 
continuous use of the cultivator. It is beginning to be clearly 
seen, however, that this treatment tends toward the decrease of 
the humus and the consequent impoverishment of the soil. Its 
water-holding capacity is also lessened. These facts have induced 
some growers to change their practice and take up the plow during 
late winter or early spring to cover in the growth of green stuff 
which they allow to grow instead of frequently destroying it with 
the winter use of the cultivator. Either the fall and spring plowing, 
or both, followed by the summer use of the cultivator, is the most 
rational and satisfactory practice for most of our deciduous orch- 
ards, though there are local conditions and circumstances under 
which different procedure is preferable. 

SUMMER CULTIVATION 

Whatever the winter policy may be, the essential point in sum- 
mer cultivation is to preserve the surface layer of pulverized 
earth. It will not do to have a few inches of clods, from the size 
of a pea to that of a goose Qgg, resting on a hard surface. The 
finer the pulverization the shallower can be the surface layer, and 
vice versa, and this is probably one reason why in practice the 
work of the plow is, in so many situations, found the best founda- 
tion upon which to rest the years' cultivation. 

In order to secure this finely-pulverized layer, it is sometimes 
necessary to use what is called a "rubber," where there are many 
clods which are merely displaced by the harrow or cultivator. 
There are different styles, and they are generally home-made. 
The most common form is made of two-inch plank in lengths of 
three or four feet, bolted or spiked to pieces of four-by-four-inch 
scantling running crosswise, the edges of the planks lapped like 
the clapboards which are used for weather boarding. As these 
edges are drawn over the surface, the clods are rubbed into tilth 
if the}^ are not too hard and dry. 

But this rubbing may be very undesirable if it leaves the sur- 
face smooth and polished. It may reflect the sunheat even to 
tree-burning, and is apt to form an evaporating surface, which is 
most to be avoided. The best finish for the land is that produced 
by a light, fine-tooth harrow, and an attachment of this kind is 
provided with various clod crushers and cultivators. The result 



WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION 



153 



is a surface of loose earth, flat and fine, which approaches very 
closely an ideal condition. 

There is less difference than formerly in the use of the harrow 
or cultivator during the summer. Still some are content to use 
the cultivator only as a weed-killer, and after the weeds cease to 
grow and the spring showers are over, the cultivator is laid aside 
and the land left unstirred until the following winter. This, of 
course, refers to unirrigated ground, for wherever irrigation is 
practiced a cultivator must follow, except on hillsides where the 
surface is left undisturbed after the irrigation furrows are made 
at the beginning of the dry season. It is a fact, however, that even 
if no rain falls, the soil becomes compacted to a certain degree, 
and the best way to imprison the greatest possible amount of 
moisture below is to run the cultivator at intervals all through 
the dry season. It should run shallow and only stir the surface 
layer. The experience of the most successful growers is that fre- 
quent stirring without, however, bringing new soil to the air, is 
the best-paying practice. 

WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION 

As clean, thorough cultivation has been approved, it may be 
desirable to attempt to define the term. It can, however, only be 
approximately done, because of the great difference in individual 
views and practices. Some indication of the operations which are 
contemplated may be had in the following specifications upon which 
contracts have been let for care of orchard : First, plowing away 
from the trees, followed by harrowing; second, plowing toward the 
trees, followed by harrowing; ten summer workings with culti- 
vator; three workings with shallow cultivator or weed-cutter; five 
hand hoeings around the trees. The contract intends the most com- 
plete and perfect working of the soil and specifies the above merely 
that there may be no difference of opinion between owner and 
contractor. 

In cases where the land is infected with morning-glory, weekly 
cultivation is stipulated for in some cases, and this seems about 
the only way to cope with this formidable trespasser. 

- CULTIVATION FOR WEED KILLING 

Cultivation for weed killing is a minor consideration in Cali- 
fornia: because cultivation for moisture conservation effectually 
disposes of most of them, and weeds do not start readily in the 
earth-mulch during the dry season. There are, however, a few 
most persistent pests which require heroic measures. Johnson 
grass and morning-glory are the most prominent of these. The 
only successful treatment consists in cutting constantly with a 
weed -cutter (a sharp horizontal knife), operated so as to pass under 



-154 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



the whole surface and run so often that the plant is never allowed 
to show a shoot on the surface. It is of no use merely to cultivate 
or "weed-cut" as for other weeds. This spreads the pest more and 
more ; but if the rising shoots are continually cut under the surface, 
and never allowed to get the light, it will kill the plant surely, but 
it may take two seasons to do it. Weed-cutting knives of this 
description are usually contrived by local smiths and are attached to 
sleds or fitted with plow-handles, or used with a pair of thills and 
cultivator-handles, or other rigging as the operator may choose. 
The vital point is a blade of sheet steel, very sharp, and rigged to 
run just under the surface. It must be used as often as once each 
week. 

MULCHING A SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION 

The use of a mulch or covering of the ground with a litter of 
light materials to prevent evaporation, is practiced to a small extent 
in this State. Though mainly used for berries of different kinds, 
recourse has also been had to mulching by vineyardists. The mate- 
rials, used are various, such as partly-rotted straw, coarse 
manure, damaged hay, corn-husks, corn-stalks, vine prunings and 
leaves, and even fine brush from adjacent thickets. The practice 
has been found of greatest value on hillsides where cultivation 
is difficult, and danger of washing of loose soil is great. There are 
cases where vines have been grown several years in this way to 
the satisfaction of the owner. The danger of fire in our dry climate 
when the surface is covered to a depth of several inches with a 
dry mulch is considerable. As a rule, the mulch employed by the 
California grower is a perfect pulverization of the surface soil. 



CHAPTER XIV 
FERTILIZERS FOR TREES AND VINES 

It was a popular doctrine among early Californians that Cali- 
fornia soils would never need fertilization, and that there is some- 
thing in our soil and climate which releases us forever from repay- 
ing anything to the ground for the wealth of produce which we 
take from it. Such a view is, of course, without foundation, and 
yet it is not difficult to see how it arose. Early attempts to enrich 
the soil by the turning under of coarse stable manure, as is done 
in other countries, was undertaken here on light soil in a region 
rather short of rainfall. The manure did not decompose, and its; 
coarse materials made a soil, already too light to retain moisture 
well, so open and porous that its moisture was quickly carried away 
by evaporation, and crops did not grow so well as upon adjacent 
land which had not been manured. So the fiat went forth against 
manure. The corrals* became undisturbed guano deposits, and 
manure piles were fired in dry weather to get the soil poison out 
of the way. Innumerable tons of bones were gathered and ground 
in San Francisco and shipped away to countries which need fertil- 
izers. Nature did much to foster the popular delusion, for field 
crops were gloriously large, and trees and vines grew rampantly 
and bore fruit the weight of which they were unable to sustain. 
How could there be more conclusive evidence that manure was a 
detriment to California soils? 

A few decades of experience have swept away such fallacies 
and now California growers, especially those handling citrus fruits, 
are not only freely investing in commercial fertilizers but are buy- 
ing and shipping considerable distances all available animal 
manures. They are also untiring students of the art of fertilization 
and the sciences underlying it. It was in response to their demand 
that the California Legislature of 1903 passed a fertilizer control 
law giving the University Agricultural Experiment Station regu- 
lation of the trade in fertilizing materials. All dealers are required 
to register and submit samples of their brands and there is con- 
stant inspection to detect departures. Semi-annual reports are pub- 
lished for public information and these, with special instructions for 
taking samples when purchasers desire analyses on their own ac- 
count, can be had by application to the Experiment Station at 
Berkeley. The total amount of sales reported under the law for 
the year ending June 30, 1908, was 31,228 tons. 

* Inclosures for live stock of any kind. 
155 



156 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



It is foreign to our purpose to discuss the general subject of 
the use of fertilizers in California, and the changes in belief and 
practice which have recently gained ground. Of course, the marked 
falling off in the yield of shallow-rooting cereals gave the first un- 
mistakable intimation that there was something wrong about the old 
theory of the perpetual youth of California soils. The lands used 
for fruit are sometimes slow to show exhaustion, because trees are 
deep feeders, and the soils, as they are often the very best and 
deepest of the State, selected for fruit because of that very charac- 
ter, possess, in an eminent degree, lasting properties, as is shown 
in the chapter on the fruit soils of California. But certain of these 
soils are already showing the need of refreshment, and intelligent 
growers are quick to minister to the lands which are giving them 
such generous returns, as they can well afford to do. 

WHEN IS FERTILIZATION NECESSARY? 

Though the use of fertilizers by our fruit growers is beginning, 
it should be plainly stated that at present, except perhaps with 
citrus fruit trees, or the oldest orchards of other fruits, it is not 
yet the rule that such applications are necessary. There are some 
soils which are really too rich for fruit. There is sometimes an 
overrank growth of wood, which delays or prevents the formation 
of fruit buds, and there is a marvelous development of fruit which 
is inconsistent with the highest quality. For this reason the grower 
should not conclude, from the foregoing general remarks concern- 
ing the need of fertilization in California, that he must manure his 
soil whether it needs it or not. Especially is this the case with 
young trees, in which the wood growth is easily overstimulated. 
As with irrigation, so in fertilization ; the tree or vine itself will 
give the observing grower hints as to its needs, and if the growth 
of wood and color of foliage are such as obviously indicate health 
and vigor, it may be concluded that the plant needs nothing but 
good cultivation and intelligent pruning. 

Usually cases of overrich ground will cure themselves as the 
trees attain size and full bearing, and it is then that fertilization 
may be necessary. When the tree or vine which has been properly 
pruned and cultivated is not able to mature a good weight of well- 
developed fruit, and make a satisfactory wood growth, usually at 
the same time showing some degree of distress by the color of its 
foliage, it needs help ; and if the grower is sure that the trouble is 
not from lack of moisture in the soil, he should bestir himself in 
the manuring of his orchard or vineyard. In examining the soil 
for moisture, one should dig deeply, for there have been cases 
of moisture near the surface, and drouth below. 



THE USE OF FERTILIZERS 



157 



WHAT FERTILIZERS TO APPLY TO FRUIT TREES 

AND VINES 

A discussion of this subject from a chemist's point of view is 
beyond the scope of this volume. The results of research at the 
University Experiment Station at Berkeley are summarized in the 
treatise on soils by Dr. E. W. Hilgard, who maintains the position 
that the most intelligent and economical choice of fertilizers is to 
be made after ascertaining by analysis in what constituents the 
soil is deficient and in what it is well supplied. Some applications 
made in conformity with suggestions based upon analysis have 
proved very satisfactory. But as soils vary within narrow limits of 
area, there must be analysis for each soil in question. 

Approaching the matter of choosing fertilizers without soil 
analysis, the method by local trial is open. In this recourse there 
is danger of error, as pointed out by Dr. Hilgard, arising from local 
differences in soil and subsoil, and must be checked by several 
check plots so interposed between the others as to not only check 
them by direct comparison, and to prevent the washing of fertil- 
izers from one fertilized plot to another, but they must also be 
compared, first of all, among themselves, to determine what is the 
normal product of the unfertilized land. It will frequently be found 
that these unfertilized check plots differ more widely between them- 
selves than do the fertilized ones from them or from each other. 
It usually takes several seasons to come to definite results. 

From these statements it must appear that the prescription of 
fertilizers is not an easy matter. Disappointments will naturally 
be encountered, but unquestionably the advantage is on the side 
of patient trial and wise investment in fertilizers honestly made 
and honestly sold. The observing grower must learn all that 
he can from experience. The University of California at its Citrus 
Experiment Station at Riverside began in 1907 a series of experi- 
ments in the course of which trees, specially planted in plots 
guarded from interference, will be grown on various diets in order 
that close comparisons may be made, from which it is expected 
that important conclusions in plant nutrition can be drawn. It is 
obviously the duty of the grower to constantly study fertilizer 
questions as presented in books and journals and to be alert 
for observation of the behavior of his own trees with the applica- 
tions he may make. The publications of responsible fertilizer 
manufacturers and dealers, also convey important information when 
read discriminately. 

Though the deficiencies of the soil, as learned by analysis, or by 
practical test, must be the basis of prescription of fertilizers, the 
analyses of fruits, as showing the special needs of the plants, are 
of the highest importance. The following analyses of the different 



158 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



fruits, containing, in each case, skin, pulp and seeds, are almost 
entirely from California-grown specimens, and are supposed to 
represent an average composition of the fruits named. 



Quantities of soil ingredients withdrawn by various fruits 
Compiled from analyses by G. E. Colby, University of California 

Phosphoric 

FRESH FRUIT Total ash Potash Lime Acid Nitrogen 

1,000 pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds 

Almondst 17.29 9.95 1.04 2.04 7.01 

Apricots . . 5.08 3.01 .16 .66 1.94 

Apples 2.64 1.40 .11 .33 1.05 

Bananas 10.78 6.80 .10- .17 .97 

Cherries 4.82 2.77 .20 .72 2.29 

Chestmitst 9.52 3.67 1.20 1.58 6.40 

Figs 7.81 4.69 .85 .86 2.38 

Grapes 5.00 2.55 .25 .11 1.26 

Lemons 5.26 2.54 1.55 .58 1.51 

Olives 13.50 9.11 2.43 1.25 5.60 

Oranges 4.32 2.11 .97 .53 1.83 

Peaches 5.30 3.94* .14* .85* 1.20* 

Pears 2.50 1.34 .19 .34 .90 

Prunes, French 4.86 3.10 .22 .68 1.82 

Plums 5.35 3.41* .25* .75* 1.81 

Walnutst 12.98 8.18 1.55 1.47 5.41 

tincluding hulls. *Estimated. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED SOIL 

Based upon the clear characteristics of California soils as 
already indicated in the chapter on that subject, Dr. Hilgard advises 
that any large-scale fertilization should begin with phosphates and 
nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then with 
potash also, this being the order in which these substances are 
likely to become deficient in most of our soils under cultivation. 
In the course of time potash fertilization will become widely 
necessary in this State ; in fact some California soils are naturally 
deficient in potash. 



AVAILABLE SUPPLIES OF PHOSPI-IATES 

Phosphatic manures which are clearly promotive of freer fruit- 
ing of trees and vines, are now being supplied to fruit growers by 
importers and manufacturers located in various California cities, 
and results attained by their use are such as to warrant contin- 
uance. They are bone and rock phosphates, which are transformed 
into superphosphates, and, with nitrogenous matter added, serve 
as good applications both for growth and fruiting. 



HOW TO HANDLE BONES 



159 



Home-made Bone Manures. — Much good bone manure can be 
made, by collecting bones, heads, horns, feet, etc., from butchers' 
shops or elsewhere. How to make such material available, by- 
simple proceedings, is described by Prof. Hilgard as follows : 

1. Bones put into a well-kept (moistened) manure pile will themselves 
gradually decay and disappear, enriching the manure to that extent. 

2. Raw bones may be bodily buried in the soil around the trees; if placed 
at a sufficient depth, beyond the reach of the summer's heat and drouth and 
cultivating tools, the rootlets will cluster around each piece, and, in course 
of a few years, consume it entirely. 

3. Bones may be packed in moist wood ashes, best mixed with a little 
quick-lime, the mass kept moist but never dripping. In a few months the 
hardest bones will be reduced to a fine mush, which is as effectual as super- 
phosphate. Concentrated lye and soil may be used instead of ashes. In this 
process the nitrogen of the bones is lost, going off in the form of ammonia, 
the odor of which is very perceptible in the tank used. 

For neither of these processes should the bones be burned. The burning 
of bones is an unqualified detriment to their effectiveness, which can only be 
undone by the use of sulphuric acid. 

4. Bones steamed for three or four hours in a boiler under a pressure of 
thirty-five to fifty pounds, can, after drying, be readily crushed in an ordinary 
barley-crushing mill, and thus be rendered more convenient for use. Practi- 
cally, very little of the nitrogen (glue) of the bones need be thus lost. 



POTASH 

Though, as already stated, potash is commonly in good supply 
in California soils, it is very clear from experience that additions 
of potash, perhaps in more available form, are advisable. The 
fruit analyses already given show that the use of this substance 
by fruit trees and vines is very large. Recent experiments also 
show that potash ministers directly to the quality of the fruit in 
some cases. Ashes from wood fires are the most available source 
of potash, but it is a mistake to regard wood ashes as valuable 
only for their potash contents. Professor Storer has found by 
analysis of a number of samples of house ashes, that selected sam- 
ples contain 8J/2 per cent of real potash, and 2 per cent of phos- 
phoric acid, or say 4|/2 pounds of potash and one pound of phos- 
phoric per bushel. Hence there is enough potash and phosphoric 
acid to make a bushel of ashes worth twenty or twenty-five cents, 
and besides that, some ten or fifteen cents additional may be 
allowed for the "alkali power" of the ashes, i. e., the force of 
alkalinity which enables ashes to rot weeds and to ferment peat. 

These facts suggest to the fruit grower that he should carefully 
preserve all home-made wood ashes and apply them to the soil 
at once, or, if stored for future application, be sure that they are 
kept dry. Leached ashes from the lye barrel, or ashes ' from 
open piles, leached by rains, are hardly worth handling. Coal 
ashes are almost devoid of fertilizing properties, though, if finely 
divided, as in the case of coals burning completely, their use is 



160 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



beneficial, mechanically, on clay soils, in the same way that fine 
sand would be. 

The chief supplies of potash salts are now brought from Ger- 
many and are in the hands of local dealers, but there are exten- 
sive deposits in Utah, New Mexico, and elsewhere in the interior, 
which can be employed when railroads make them available. 

NITROGEN 

Nitrogen ministers directly to the vegetative activity of the 
plant and is a wonderful stimulant of wood growth and foliage. 
Supplies of this substance can be had from animal manures, which 
will be considered later. The effect of stable manure upon the 
soil and the plant is notably strengthening and restorative. For 
this reason money and effort are often well expended in securing 
it even beyond the cost of the equivalent of the plant food which 
it contains. Another natural form of nitrogen in cover crops or 
green manures will be discussed presently. Of commercial forms 
of nitrogen, tankage and dried blood are highly esteemed for 
orchard use, and there is large use also of Chile saltpeter, which 
contains about sixteen per cent of nitrogen, in immediately avail- 
able form. From one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds 
per acre is the usual application. Sulphate of ammonia is another 
available source of nitrogen obtainable in commerce ; a good com- 
mercial article contains twenty per cent and over of nitrogen. It 
does not, however, act quite as rapidly as the Chile saltpeter. A 
suggestion of caution in the use of nitrogenous manures will be 
given presently. 

LIME, GYPSUM AND MARL 

Lime is another substance usually abundant in California soils, 
but still often desirable as an application. This is, notably, the 
case on our heavy clays or adobes, where, as has already been men- 
tioned in another connection, the use of lime as a top dressing, 
at the rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds to the acre, 
not only makes the heavy soil more friable, but acts upon and 
makes available the large amount of organic matter which such 
soils usually contain. Lime also renders inorganic materials more 
available for plant food, corrects acidity, and may destroy insects 
and fungi. Application of lime is also desirable after applications 
of barn-yard manure have been made for several years ; and it is 
especially valuable wherever, in alluvial soils rich in vegetable mat- 
ter, there is an excessive growth of wood and leaf. Usually light 
soils are not materially benefited by the use of lime. 

Ground limestone is sometimes proposed as a fertilizer, and 
has even been offered on the market, It is insoluble and inert 



TREATMENT OF STABLE MANURES 



161 



carbonate of lime, and is not worth the cost of hauling any distance. 
It can not take the place of burned limestone. 

Gypsum. — Gypsum, or land planter (sulphate of lime), occurs 
in considerable quantities in this State and Nevada, and is now 
being mined and ground at a low price in the San Joaquin Valley. 
It acts directly in correcting soils made alkaline by presence of 
carbonate of soda. Applied to soils not alkaline, gypsum sets free 
potash, magnesia, and ammonia, which may be present in insoluble 
form; and it also causes potash to be transferred from the upper 
to the lower layers of the soil, so that roots can everywhere find 
a store of it. Hence its special value when applied to deep-rooting 
plants. The reason why gypsum is so capricious in its action, 
which was long a mystery, is now held to be clear, because upon 
soils that are tolerably rich in fixed potash it will do good service, 
while upon soils poor in potash it will not. In any event gypsum 
is to be regarded as an excitant rather than as a form of plant food. 

Of the several uses of gypsum, probably its chief value lies in 
its power as an absorbent. If added to manure in excess it delays 
fermentation, and it is, therefore, not a desirable addition to the 
compost heap. But for covering fermenting manures or scattering 
around moist places in horse and cow stables to absorb odors and 
fix volatile manurial substances it is of value. 

Marls. — Marl is a calcareous earth, and is called shell marl, 
rock marl, earthy marls, etc., according to its origin and mechanical 
condition. A number of samples from different parts of the State 
have been analyzed by Professor Hilgard and some of them com- 
mended for local application to soils needing lime, but not valuable 
enough to warrant hauling far. Marl which sometimes occurs 
in California too near the surface is injurious to trees, causing 
yellow leaf and die back when reached by the roots. 

BARN-YARD MANURE AND COMPOST 

Where fruit growing is carried on with stock growing, there 
are abundant supplies of manure available, but this combination 
is not characteristic of California, though prevailing to some extent, 
and likely to be more prevalent as fruit planting extends farther 
from the centers which are wholly given to it. But even in the 
fruit centers there are certain amounts of material available from 
the animals that are kept for cultivation and hauling, or to be had, 
often, for the expense of hauling from adjacent towns. 

As already stated, coarse, unrotted manure can seldom be used 
to advantage in this State, unless it be in heavy soils in regions 
of ample rainfall, or on lighter soils, perhaps, if well irrigated; 
and even in such situations either finely divided or well-rotted 
manure is infinitely superior. Corral scrapings, which are usually 



162 



CALIFORNIA P^RUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



the first resource when the idea of manuring springs up in a neigh- 
borhood, are not always well decomposed, but they are finely 
divided, and therefore decompose readily as compared with coarse 
straw, which, it is said, has been found practically unchanged even 
after lying two years in a dry, loose soil. It is, therefore, of the 
greatest advantage to prepare barnyard manure with care for use 
in this State by some such method as will be described below, 
which includes composting, thereby turning to account nearly 
all organic material likely to be available : 

Clean up all the manure on hand just before the fall rains, putting the 
same on the land, and either cultivate it in or plow it under. What manure 
accumulates during the winter pile in a snug heap some five or six feet in 
depth, and throw it over some three or four times during the winter to keep 
it from burning, as well as to thoroughly mix it and thereby hasten decom- 
position. Put horse, cow, hog, chicken, and every other kind of manure that 
can be had, all together. Never burn anything that will rot, but haul to the 
pile corn-stalks, roots, and all squash, melon, tomato, and potato vines, etc., 
as well as weeds of every description, in fact, anything and everything that 
will decay and make vegetable matter. Use fresh horse manure mostly to 
hasten the decomposition of said vines, weeds, etc., alternating as the heap 
is made. By so doing there will not be a weed seed left with vitality enough 
to germinate. It is well to have manure piles under a roof to avoid leaching 
during the longest and most excessive rains, but so situated that some of the 
rain falling on the barn can be easily conducted to the piles, giving them just 
the amount of water necessary to wet thoroughly without leaching, and no 
more. 

Treatment of Manure without Composting. — Even when com- 
posting all refuse vegetable matter with the manure is not thought 
worth the time and trouble, it is just as important to properly 
treat the manure when stored alone. This can be easily done by 
some such plan as is described below : 

Collect the stable manure in a large bin and keep it wet enough to prevent 
burning or "fire-fanging." With a bin, say ten or twelve feet square and five 
or six feet high, built convenient to the barn, the manure can be placed 
therein and watered from time to time with much less trouble than it can be 
composted with other material. This, of course, presupposes the ability to 
run the water in through a hose or by natural flow. Care must, of course, be 
taken that too much water be not supplied, causing the substance to be 
leached from the pile. But in my own experience I find the danger is at the 
other extreme, and when I open my pile I sometimes wish I had used more 
water. In filling the bin leave one end or side open as long as possible, for 
convenience of filling. 

Barn-yard manure and compost carefully prepared in some such 
way as described, and applied before the rains or early in 
the rainy season, to be turned under at the first plowing, will be 
in condition to be readily assimilated, and will not injure any 
soil. Where no composting is undertaken it is rational to apply 
the manure during the rainy season directly to the land if the 
rainfall is not large and the land fit to haul over. During the dry 
season the manure can be spread in the corral and tramped into 
dust by the stock because as long as it remains dry no losses by 



USING WASTE MATERIALS 



163 



fermentation can occur. Near the end of the dry season, the 
corral should be scraped and all the material spread on the land. 
In this way the cost and trouble of manure piles can be avoided. 

Sheep Manure. — The proximity of the orange orchards of South- 
ern California to extensive sheep ranges led "to large use of the 
manure from the sheep corrals until supplies were practically 
exhausted. Afterwards large deposits in the San Joaquin Valley 
were opened and the material, which has shown value by analysis 
in one case of above $14 per ton, is finely ground and placed upon 
the market in a business way. One deposit mined for several 
years by George C. Roeding & Co., of Fresno, was several acres 
in extent and at some points the material was ten feet deep. Such 
deposits can seldom be found now except in remote parts of the 
State. 

Sheep manure is usually counted richer and quicker, though 
not so lasting in its effects, as stable manure. Being highly nitro- 
genous, too free use of sheep manure tends to excessive growth 
of wood, especially on young trees. Old bearing trees may be 
benefited by such a stimulant. 

VARIOUS WASTE PRODUCTS 

The care advised in saving and treating barn-yard manure, hen 
manure, bones, ashes, etc., should be extended to other waste 
products of the farm. Soapsuds should be allowed to run to adja- 
cent trees unless used in the flower garden, but not too long upon 
the same trees for it may kill them. Peelings and corings of fruit, 
cut for drying, should be fed to pigs and the resulting manure 
secured. It is not wise to corral the swine in a dry run in the 
summer and allow the manure to be sluiced out by the winter rise 
of the stream. 

Prunings. — Prunings of the orchard and vineyard should be 
burned between the rows, in small piles, so as to distribute the 
ashes well. Danger to adjacent trees may be avoided by using 
the portable, home-made tin shields on the sides of the fires. It 
is not wise to carry all the prunings to the side of the highway 
and burn them there and allow the ashes to be lost. Vineyard 
prunings are sometimes cut up with an arrangement like a straw- 
cutter, which reduces them to bits about an inch in length. They 
are then scattered over the surface of the ground, turned under 
at the next plowing, and soon decay. Where, through lightness 
of soil and short rainfall, the woody fiber does not readily decay, 
burning upon an iron sled about ten feet long is practiced. At 
its front is a V-shaped iron rod, to which a horse can be hitched. 
On the sled are flaring sheet-iron sides and perforated bottom. 



164 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



This is filled Avith brush, a fire kindled, and as the horse moves 
forward fresh brush is added, while the ashes by its motion are 
sifted out very evenly all over the vineyard. 

Refuse from Wineries. — The fermented husks, stems, and seeds, 
all containing valuable fertilizing properties, are often spread on 
the road and in holes, where it is of no account whatever. If 
scattered over the vineyard, much valuable substance would be 
returned to the soil. In some soils application of raw refuse 
would be undesirable because of the acidity developed. It is 
usually safe on calcareous soils, and for other soils should be 
composted with lime or wood ashes to facilitate decay and neu- 
tralization of the acid. Of winery refuse the lees are especially 
valuable because of the supplies of potash they contain, but the}^ 
are now being largely used in the manufacture of tartaric acid. 

Other Waste Products. — There are available from various man- 
ufactories different waste products which can not be specified. 
When any such material comes to the notice of the fruit grower, 
he should seek advice from the Agricultural Experiment Station, 
at Berkeley, as to the probable value of the material, and its special 
uses. 

CAUTION IN USE OF FERTILIZERS 

Besides the injunction already given against application of 
fertilizers when the soil is already quite rich enough to produce 
good fruit and plenty of it, it should be noted that manures unduly 
rich in animal matter should be used with caution, as they may 
overstimulate the plant, delay or reduce fruiting, injure the quality 
of the fruit, and possibly engender disease in the tree or vine. 
Monstrous size and puffiness of oranges is clearly due in some 
cases to excess of nitrogenous manures. Excessive use of soluble 
fertilizers like nitrate of soda may kill plants or trees outright. 

The effect of excessive use of stable manures, or other manures 
very rich in nitrogen, upon the products of the vine has been 
frequently noted as destructive to bouquet and quality. 

METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS 

Suggestions concerning proper application of barn-yard 
manures, both to young trees at planting and to bearing trees 
and vines, have already been given. The same conditions which 
cause slow decomposition of stable manures apply to any fertil- 
izing material which is not readily soluble in water. All such 
material should be in a finely divided state. Surface applications 
of ground bone^ will, in the dry climate of California, lie practically 
unchanged for a long period. Ground bone should be plowed in 



MANURES IN IRRIGATION WATER 



165 



as deeply as can be clone without injury to the roots of trees and 
vines, and then, if the surface is kept cultivated, it will lie in moist 
strata and decompose, or be siezed'by the searching rootlets. On 
the other hand, superphosphate, or other really soluble chemical 
fertilizers, will produce immediate results, and can be most eco- 
nomically used on light and easily permeable soils, on which falling 
water sinks and does not flow over the surface. In leachy soils 
a part of such fertilizers might be carried down beyond the reach 
of shallow-rooting plants, but there is little danger of this in the 
case of trees and vines. 

When superphosphate is used on irrigated ground, it is some- 
times drilled in to prevent its being carried along with the running 
water. One way is to run a chisel-tooth cultivator ahead of the 
grain-seed drill and to distribute and drill in the fertilizer as deep 
as feasible to do without injuring the roots. Spring application of 
fertilizers are conveniently made by spreading upon the vegetation 
which is plowed under at that season. 

Manures with Irrigation Water. — Distribution of fertilizers by 
using the flow of irrigation water is described by A. S. Chapman, 
as follows : 

We shovel sheep manure into the irrigating ditches, allowing each tree to 
receive about twenty-five pounds at each separate irrigation. Our basins 
cover the entire surface of the ground. We make no effort to choke such 
weeds as clover, alfilerilla, and the like; but the irrigator with his hoe de- 
stroys the obnoxious nightshade, hoarhound, and nettle. 

In the fall of the year we follow with copious liming — about three barrels 
of unslacked lime to the acre — applied in the following manner at the head 
of our irrigating ditch : We plant a box about three feet wide, six feet long, 
two feet deep, and six inches under the surface of the running water. In it 
we place a barrel of the lime. It slacks and swells to twice its original bulk. 
A man stands on this with his hoe and sees that the water carries it off 
evenly. With an irrigating head such as we use, a man will run into the 
ditch four barrels a day, or about three barrels to the acre. We have a con- 
siderable fall, and the water runs very rapidly; but it takes up all the lime, 
and the water runs white, like milk. 

We now leave the orange orchard till spring, when we plow under weeds, 
manure and lime. We thus aim to supply our soil with nitrate of lime, 
potash, and magnesia. Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by the water and 
attacks the inert plant food in the soil; hard-pan is prevented both by the 
mechanical effects of the vegetable matter and the lime. 

The basin method of irrigation, to which allusion is made, will 
be more fully described in the following chapter. 

FERTILIZING MATTERS IN IRRIGATION WATER 

Water used for irrigation may carry in solution injurious sub- 
stances, as, for example, alkali, as will be noted in the following 
chapter; or it may carry very valuable fertilizing properties. 
These facts can only be determined by analysis. Professor Hilgard 
has found that the water of one creek in Alameda County carries 
to the land it irrigates about half a grain of potash in each gallon. 



-^QQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

which means that if twelve inches of such water were used on 
the ground during the season, each acre would receive therefrom 
about twenty pounds of fully available potash. At Riverside a 
crop of oranges requires about forty-two pounds of potash per 
acre, of which the amount of irrigation water used in that case 
contained thirty-five pounds, beside other matters required by 
plants. These things have a definite cash value in the market; and 
this value the irrigator gets as a free gift in addition to the water. 
Even in the case of the Nile, the sediment is only part of the sum 
of fertility conveyed by the river. 

GREEN MANURING OR COVER CROPS 

Green manuring consists in plowing under a growth of weeds 
or a sown crop to secure by its decay a contribution of humus 
to the soil. Plants grown for this purpose are currently called 
"cover crops" because they cover the soil instead of allowing it 
to remain bare in "clean culture" of orchard or "bare fallow" of 
grain fields. 

All plants by their decay in the soil add organic matter to it, 
and this matter is of nitrogenous character, but leguminous 
plants do this and a great deal more, through their exclusive ability 
to use atmospheric nitrogen gathered by the bacteria which cause 
nodules upon their roots. There is also special value in deep- 
rooting legume in soil amelioration. There is now reason to 
believe, as has already been stated, that where moisture is ample 
for both alfalfa and trees we shall come to using this plaut for 
a permanent cover of orchard ground as a substitute for apart 
of the clean culture which is now observed. This is, in fact, 
already being done to some extent. It is also probable that alfalfa 
can be used for a certain time even where its permanent stand 
is not desirable, for it is not difficult to destroy alfalfa with a 
well-sharpened plow although the roots may have attained con- 
siderable thickness. Of course this, as already stated, depends 
upon moisture supply ; where that is not abundant, clean culture 
for moisture conservation is unavoidable. But where moisture in 
excess of the needs of the trees is available it will be used in future 
indirectly for their benefit in ways we are only just beginning to 
discern, and one of these is likely to be the summer growth of 
legumes in the orchard. Cow peas on moist or irrigated lands may 
be used in this way. 

A summer cover crop in California is, however, largely a matter 
for future determination, and under ordinary conditions may never 
be practicable. The wider problem is to secure the best legumi- 
nous plant which will make a heavy growth during the winter 
months, so that it can be plowed in early in spring, and the ground 
put in shape for the thorough surface pulverization to prevent 



TWO METHODS WITH THE LEMON 



167 




Lemon orchard under clean culture. 




Winter view of lemon orchard with cover crop of vetches, 



-^Qg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

evaporation of moisture during our long, dry summer. For this 
reason we can not use many plants which are used for green- 
manuring in humid climates. Crimson clover, cow peas, etc., do 
not make good winter growth unless the temperature is relatively 
high and frosts few and light. They make exuberant growth for 
a time in the spring when heat is adequate and moisture abundant, 
but at that time it is too late to grow crops for plowing under 
because the soil is too dry for their decay and their presence tends 
otherwise to the loss of moisture and makes it very difficult to 
secure a good surface tilth. The greatest care must be had not 
to allow a growth either of cover crop or of weeds to stand too 
long or its covering will do more harm than good. Hardy legumes 
are therefore the desideratum both for winter forage and green- 
manuring. The common "burr clover" {Medicago denticulata) is 
proving very satisfactory in some parts of the State, the "Canadian 
field pea," the winter vetch, the hairy vetch and fenugreek are 
coming into quite wide use in orchards in different parts of the 
State. Which plant is best in any locality must be determined 
by its local behavior. In some places native lupines make a good 
natural cover crop. 

A Matter of Local Study. — The recourse to cover crops in 
the orchard or vineyard should be approached with a disposition 
to careful study and experiment. Unless it is done in the right 
way it is likely to be disappointing and the right way involves 
both the selection of the best legumes and the best ways to grow 
them. Scant growth, cloddy soil, loss of moisture and condemna- 
tion of the practice are likely to result from ill-considered methods. 
On the other hand, success with cover crops results in such numer- 
ous and important advantages that the wide introduction of them 
must be looked upon as one of the most important advances in 
California horticulture during the last decade. One of the most 
careful students of cover crops in all their bearings is Mr. L. L. 
Palmer of North Pomona, who in a recent public address cited 
ten different reasons for growing cover crops (legumes) in the 
orchard : 

1. They provide humus in the soil, by which the inert fer- 
tilization materials of the soil are made available. 

2. They make it possible to obtain results from the use of the 
cheaper forms of phosphate, such as Thomas Slag and other unacid- 
ulated phosphates. 

3. They store up nitrogen from the air, and therefore act as 
a direct nitrogenous fertilizer. 

4. They improve vastly the mechanical condition of the soil, 
making it easily possible to secure the best cultivation. 

5. They put the soil in a condition to retain moisture. 



Service op cover crops -^qq 

6. They make the soil porous, so that proper aeration is 
secured, 

7. They are a means for overcoming" irrigation hard-pan and 
plow-sole. 

8. While growing they prevent the washing of the soil by 
the storm waters. 

9. While growing they probably assist in preventing the radi- 
ation of heat from the ground in time of a freeze. 

10. They do away with the cultivation of the ground during 
the winter months. 

Each of these reasons suggests a chapter of discussion and 
explanation which can not be indulged in. Every reader should 
keep himself up to date in this progressive subject by thoughtful 
reading of our horticultural journals and proceedings of our horti- 
cultural assemblies. 



CHAPTER XV 
IRRIGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND VINES 

Whether fruit shall be grown with irrigation or not is a local 
and specific question, and it must be answered with due regard 
for several conditions, among which are: First, the minimum 
local rainfall ; second, the depth and character of the soil and' sub- 
soil ; third, the situation and environment of the ground on which 
the fruit is to be grown ; fourth, the kind of fruit which it is desired 
to produce. 

These conditions arc all correlated, and a knowledge of them 
all is necessary to an intelligent decision as to correct practice 
in any given locality. For example, the amount of rainfall which 
is adeciuate in one locality, or in one situation, even, may be 
quite insufficient in another, because, first, one soil may be deep 
and fairly retentive, into which roots can penetrate and find abun- 
dant moisture ; second, another soil may have sufficient depth, 
but be so porous as to lose its moisture by evaporation, or so 
leachy as to lose it by drainage ; third, still another may be shallow, 
and quickly dried out under a fervid sun, or quickly drained by 
reason of a sloping substratum of rock or hard-pan, while another 
similar soil, differently situated, may receive abundant moisture 
from the drainage of the slope above it; fourth. ])ossibly in all the 
soils cited there might be adequate moisture for deciduous fruits, 
but citrus fruits would require irrigation ; or enough for young, 
but not for bearing trees. 

Thus it appears that even to decide whether a location has 
sufficient rainfall for the growth of fruit without irrigation, one 
must pass judgment upon all the conditions first mentioned. It is 
hardly worth while, then, to discuss such a topic upon theoretical 
grounds, or to attempt to answer the general question, Shall irri- 
gation be employed in the growth of fruit? The true guide is 
enlightened local experience, and the true test is the growth of 
the tree and the excellence of its fruit. So long as the grower 
is able to secure every year a generous amount of good-sized 
and excellent fruit by natural rainfall, he need concern himself 
very little about irrigation ; if his tree shows distress, and his fruit, 
even when properly thinned out, is not up to market standards 
every year, he may do well to provide himself with irrigation 
facilities, either for constant use or to supplement rainfall when 
it is occasionally deficient. 

170 



RESULTS OF OVER-IRRIGATION 171 

Of course it is not commended as a rule of practice that the 
grower wait until the tree shows signs of distress before applying 
water. This is a very bad plan of proceeding, but the visible 
language of the tree is mentioned as indicating that the tree needs 
help, either at regular intervals or occasionally, and after such a 
warning the grower should be able to tell by examination of the 
soil and by study of the local rainfall record when this need will 
occur, and apply his water in advance of the need. 

Recent experience has enabled fruit growers in all parts of 
California to arrive at a truer conception of the relation of irri- 
gation to the growth of fruits. Many who long scouted the sug- 
gestion that irrigation was necessary for deciduous fruit trees 
in their districts, have found that water, in addition to the rainfall, 
was very profitable, either to enable large, bearing trees to produce 
larger fruit, or to maintain in full vigor their later summer growth 
and to make strong fruit buds, which insure the following year's 
production. It has also been widely demonstrated that a tree 
which is adequately supplied with water, no matter whether it be 
directly from the clouds or through the irrigating stream, yields 
fruit of better size, aroma, flavor and carrying quality than a tree 
which, from any cause, falls even a little short of an adequate 
supply. It is clear then that neither irrigation nor non-irrigation 
are in themselves principles, but are merely methods to be em- 
ployed when conditions demand the one or the other. 

Several claims against irrigated products may be stated and 
opposed in this way : 

(1) The claim that nursery trees grown by irrigation are, 
from that mere fact, inferior is based upon experience in trans- 
planting trees unduly forced by overirrigation. Immense growth 
from the bud in a single season of an inch and a half in diameter 
and ten feet in height tempted buyers who wanted to get as much 
as possible for their money. The result of setting out such trees 
created a strong prejudice against irrigated nursery stock. It 
is now clearly seen that moderate, thrifty growth is the ideal in 
a young tree, and if the soil does not hold rainfall enough to 
secure this, water enough to secure it must be applied. 

(2) The claim that irrigated fruit lacks aroma and flavor is 
based upon observation of monstrous, insipid fruit forced into 
such abnormal character by excessive irrigation. Growers who 
concluded therefrom that irrigated fruit was necessarily inferior; 
denied water to their trees and gathered small, tough, unmarketable 
fruit because there was not enough rainfall to enable the trees to- 
perform their proper function. As it is now conceded that the 
highest quality, including the delicate aromas and flavors, can 
be secured only by adequate moisture, it matters not how long 
since it fell from the clouds nor by what route it reaches the 
roots of the trees. 



172 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



(3) The claim that irrigated fruit could not endure shipment 
was based upon the bruising and collapse of fruit which was 
unduly inflated by overirrigation. The best fruit for shipping 
is the perfect fruit and that is secured as just stated. The fact 
that the greater part of the fresh fruit shipped across the conti- 
nent from California has been more or less irrigated, according 
to the needs of different localities, has settled the point beyond 
further controversy. 

(4) The claim that canners objected to irrigated fruit was 
based upon the early experience with overirrigated fruit, which 
lacked quality and consistency. At present the canners encourage 
irrigation and all other arts of growing which bring the product 
up to the standards they insist upon. 

(5) The claim that irrigated fruit is inferior for drying has 
the same foundation as the preceding claims and is just as clearly 
based upon misapprehension. Watery fruit is obviously inferior 
for drying, but such fruit is the fault of the irrigator, not of irri- 
gation. One of the plainest deductions from experience is that 
small, tough fruit makes unprofitable dried fruit, and that the 
best development of the fruit is essential to the best results from 
drying. Many comparative weighings have shown that the great- 
est yield in dried form has been secured from trees which have 
had water enough to produce good, large fruit. Even to bear 
fruit for drying, then, the tree must have moisture enough to 
develop size and quality. If lacking moisture, the tree serves its 
own purpose in developing pit and skin and reduces the pulp, 
in which lie the desirability and value of dried fruits. 

Of course the water should be applied at proper times, in 
proper amount, and in a proper way. 

HOW MUCH WATER SHOULD BE USED? 

This is by its very nature an elusive question and any attempt 
to answer it by a definite prescription is more apt to produce folly 
than wisdom. For as it appears that whether irrigation is at all 
needed or not depends upon several conditions which must be 
ascertained in each place, so the amount of water, which is really 
an expression of the degree of that need, depends also upon local 
conditions of rainfall, of soil depth and retentiveness, of 
rate of waste by evaporation, of the particular thirst of 
each irrigated crop, etc. The result secured by the use 
of water is really the ultimate measure of the duty of water in 
each instance. In the case of fruit trees and vines, then, what- 
ever amount of water secures thrifty and adequate wood growth 
and strong, good-colored foliage, but not excessive or rank growth ; 
and abundance of good-sized and rich, but not monstrous and 
watery, fruit, is the proper amount for that place and that product. 



INQUIRY INTO IRRIGATION PRACTICE -j^yo 

— and to the ascertainment of that amount, by local experience of 
himself and others, the grower should employ his most earnest 
thought and his keenest insight. 

During recent years the writer has continually renewed his 
data of the irrigation practice of California fruit growers by sys- 
tematic inquiry and has prepared four bulletins* which have been 
published b}^ the Irrigation Investigations of the U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. 

A study of local practice shows that infinite variety exists and 
in the nature of the case must exist, and that any definite prescrip- 
tion of the duty of water under various conditions is impossible. 
In some cases the amount of water at each irrigation must be 
smallj as, for instance, the frequent irrigation in Sacramento and 
Placer Counties, where the soils are shallow, over-lying bed-rock, 
and a small amount saturates them. In other places an acre-foot 
of water is readily absorbed and retained in the deep soil. The 
annual rainfall also has little relation to the amount of irrigation, 
because neither fine shallow, nor deep coarse soils, can retain the 
volume of water which falls upon them during the rainy season. 
Then the varying rate of evaporation, the character of the tilth, 
etc., enter as factors and it becomes clear that he is fortunate 
who knows how much water to use on his own place. 

It is interesting to note that results of close inquiry by the Irri- 
gation Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture to 
ascertain the amounts of water used by measurement of 
water running in main ditches and by estimate of the acreage 
to which the water is applied, do not agree closely with 
the growers' estimates of the amounts of water which 
they actually use. There are of course always issues between 
water-purveyors and water-buyers which can not be entered upon 
in this connection. A rough conclusion from data secured from 
the ditch flow, etc., is that from 12 to 30 acre-inches of water are 
used annually in irrigated orchards and vineyards, according to 
local conditions involved. It is quite clear that the amounts chiefly 
used would not be the average but would tend toward the lower 
figure. The details of these inquiries are found in the publications 
on irrigation of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Asrriculture.* 



* Farmers' Bulletin, No. 116, "Irrigation in fruit growing." Farmers' Bulletin, 
No. 138, "Irrigation in garden and field," Bulletin of Experiment Stations, No. 108, 
"Irrigation practice among fruit growers of the Pacific coast." Annual report of 
Irrigation and Drainage investigations, 1904, "Relation of irrigation to yield, size, 
quality, and commercial suitability of fruits." 



* Definite citation is not made because these publications are continually appear- 
ing with additional data on the effective use of water. The whole series should be 
examined. 



174 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



RELATION OF RAINFALL TO IRRIGATION 



The amount of rain and the time it falls are clearly the most 
important factors in determining the necessity for irrigation. 
Absence of rainfall makes a desert of the richest soils at all 
elevations and at all exposures. Its only remedy is irrigation. 
But there are degrees of poverty in rainfall, and thorough tillage 
will often lessen the ill effects of a scanty supply, so that an oasis 
may be made to appear without water beyond that supplied from 
the clouds. This is the triumph of tillage in the arid region which 
is to be considered in another connection. 

The line between adequate and insufficient rainfall can not be 
closely drawn. In the growth of common orchard fruits, irriga- 
tion is not resorted to at a number of points where the local 
rainfall sometimes is as low as 15 or 16 inches, but with less 
than that amount, unless the soil receive additional moisture by 
underflow, it is essential. On the other hand, irrigation is regu- 
larly practiced in some localities where the rainfall sometimes 
rises to 45 inches. Under average conditions of soil depth and 
retentiveness, the amount of rainfall which may be considered 
adequate for deciduous orchard trees under good cultivation is 
about 20 inches. So definitely is this amount fixed in the minds 
of some California growers- as meeting the needs of the tree for 
satisfactory growth and fruitage that, when rainfall for a season 
is less than that amount, irrigation is at once resorted to to supply 
the shortage. 

But owing to local conditions of soil and climate, the rainfall, 
no matter how large, may not be relied upon to carry the trees 
through the dry season. The fact is that the soil is not capable 
either of receiving the heavy rainfall or of long retaining such 
portions as actually enter it. There is, then, a considerable part 
of the rainfall which is worse than worthless, because it does 
injury by soil washing and soil leaching, and places where 
extremely heavy rainfall occurs may be actually worse off than 
other places with less rainfall. Some localities of large rainfall 
lead in amounts of water supplied by irrigation. The converse is 
also true, for some localities of light rainfall report success with 
deciduous fruit trees with a minimum amount of irrigation waier. 

Deciduous Fruits. — Without making too much of individual 
reports there appear instances enough to warrant the conclusion 
that the deciduous fruit tree can winter successfully with a small 
moisture supply and is, in fact, in less danger from lack of moisture 
than from oversupply at this time of the year. If there be enough 
moisture to prevent injury from evaporation, the tree will start 
good growth as the season advances and continue it if irrigation 




o 
a. 
a, 

ti 

H 



c 

3 
O 

O 

(U 



175 



176 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

is given promptly and in sufficient quantity. There must always 
be a determination of what is an adequate supply by reference 
to local conditions, but as an estimate of necessary rainfall has 
been made at 20 inches, it is evident that adequate irrigation may 
be very much less than that. The rainfall of 20 inches is dis- 
tributed through six or seven months. Some of it consists of light 
rains, with long, dry intervals, where there is slight penetration 
and quick evaporation. Some of it is lost by run off and by 
drainage. It is not surprising, then, that some growers having 
deep valley loams to render their irrigation effective, report success 
with deciduous trees with 8 or 10 inches of water applied just at 
the time of the tree's greatest needs and used, no doubt, with 
maximum efficiency. It seems to be a warranted deduction, from 
all data known to the writer, that 10 inches of water, applied at 
the right time to soils of good depth and fair retentiveness, and 
accompanied by good tillage for conservation, is an adequate sup- 
ply for five months of growth and fruiting even when the rainfall 
is only about enough to prevent drying out during the winter 
season. Some growers report use of less than this. Certainly 
less will do for young trees under favorable conditions, and some 
of the least amounts are reported from the newly planted regions. 
As the trees advance in age and bearing, larger amounts will be 
required. Instances of greatest frequency of application may be 
taken as-indicating soils lacking retentiveness, either through shal- 
lowness or coarseness, or either of these accompanied by extreme 
summer heat and aridity. 

Citrus Fruits. — As these trees are evergreens, and as their habit 
is to make their chief fruit growth in the autumn after the work 
of the deciduous tree has been finished for the season, the irriga- 
tion season for them is much longer. As they are, in fact, almost 
always active and sustaining uninterrupted evaporation from their 
leaf surfaces, they must always be provided with moisture or ill 
will result to tree or fruit. They thus require more water than do 
deciduous trees. There is the same relation between irrigation 
and rainfall with citrus as with deciduous fruit trees, but the degree 
of relation is different. Many trials have shown that it is prac- 
tically impossible to grow satisfactory citrus fruits without irri- 
gation,, unless there be underflow, and this is attended by the usual 
difficulties of high ground water and undesirable. There is no 
combination of heavy rainfall, or winter irrigation, and soil reten- 
tiveness which will supply the summer and autumn thirst of the 
orange or lemon in California. Irrigation, too, must be maintained 
both summer and winter wherever the rainfall is not well dis- 
tributed and adequate. In the chief citrus regions of the State 
rainfall is seldom adequate except during January and February, 
and not always then. Under such conditions an estimate of the 



IRRIGATION AND SOILS 



177 



average requirements of citrus fruit trees in bearing would be 
about • 20 inches of irrigation, irrespective of rainfall, although 
there are localities of larger rainfall and more retentive soils where 
crops of these fruits can be made with 10 inches used at just the 
right time. 

RELATION OF SOIL TO IRRIGATION 

As already stated, the desirability of irrigation is unquestion- 
ably, in many cases, conditioned upon soil depth and character. 
This relation has received careful attention from soil physicists, 
and an understanding of it involves problems of plant growth and 
the movement, of water in soils, the leading facts of which are 
available in popular form.* 

Analysis of such phenomena can not be undertaken in this con- 
nection but a few striking contrasts in existing practice are very 
suggestive. 

On the famous river-bank fruit land of the Sacramento Valley, 
with loams of great depth and good retentiveness, and with an 
average rainfall of approximately 20 inches, irrigation is resorted 
to only in years of minimum rainfall, when the precipitation is 
perhaps only about half the average. At nearly the same level, 
as already cited, where the soil is shallow and overlies hard-pan, 
regular irrigation is required. But still more marked contrast 
is found in the foothills within sight of these valley fruit lands, 
where with twice the average rainfall irrigation must begin early 
in the summer and continue until autumn is well advanced, because, 
first, the slope is so rapid that much rainfall is lost by run off; 
second, the soil is too shallow above bed rock to hold much water. 
Even here, however, there comes in a local variation of measurable 
effect. When the soil lies upon vertical plates of bed rock much 
water is retained between them, and is capable of being reached 
by tree roots, while soil lying upon flat plates of rock has no 
such subterranean reservoir. In the foothill region there also 
occurs exceptional exposure from slopes facing the midsummer 
sun in an atmosphere whose dryness is but slightly ameliorated 
by the influence of air currents from the coast. 

In the valley and foothill contrast, just cited, the unirrigated 
valley looks up to the irrigated foothills. There are also places 
where unirrigated hillslopes look down upon irrigated valleys. 
The uplands of San Diego County are nearer the coast than those 
above the Sacramento Valley. They, too, have a rainfall usually 
ample for deciduous fruits suited to their elevation. Their rolling 

* Relations of soils to climate, U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bui. 3. Water 
as a factor in the growth of plants, Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1894, p. 165. Some 
interesting soil problems, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1897, p. 429. The movement 
and retention of water in soils. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1898, p. 399. The 
mechanics of soil moisture, U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of soils Bui. 10. 



178 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



plateaus of deep soil, free from excessive heat and evaporation 
which occur on the highlands farther inland and 500 miles farther 
north, produce very successfully without irrigation. In this region, 
however, the rainfall in the valleys below is often less than the 
needs of even the deciduous fruit trees, and waters flowing from 
mountain snows through a region of unirrigated uplands must be 
used to irrigate them. 

Still another striking contrast, and one involving another and 
wholly different factor, is found in the San Joaquin Valley. Near 
Visalia, 2 feet above river bottom and 4 feet above the surround- 
ing plains, there is a large area of deep alluvial soil with much 
decayed vegetable matter. The land is moistened by underflow 
from the river, and, though the rainfall is but lYi inches, decid- 
uous fruits are grown without irrigation. In the same county, 
and only 18 miles distant, there are areas of rich loam mixed with 
granitic sand 16 to 18 feet deep. In this locality, though the rain- 
fall is 11 14 inches, irrigation is practiced freely, as the loss of 
moisture in summer is very great. 

RELATION OF TILLAGE TO IRRIGATION 

Tillage, particularly during the dry season of the year, under 
some conditions, directly determines the need of irrigation, and 
is to a certain extent, as the popular phrase goes, a substitute 
for irrigation. Under all conditions surface tillage by promoting 
conservation of soil moisture, is determinative of the actual duty 
of water, whether it be from rainfall or irrigation. The efifect of 
frequent surface tillage has been accurately determined .by investi- 
gation and experiment, both in humid and arid regions. These 
experiments fully support the view taught by the experience of 
about half a century in California, in accordance with which 
thorough tillage has been so widely practiced in the arid sections 
as an essential to successful fruit growing. 

As already maintained in Chapter XIII, the relations of tillage to 
soil moisture include both reception and conservation. For the 
reception of moisture, deep work with the plow, and sometimes 
with the subsoiler also, is almost indispensable. To retain this 
moisture and to prevent, as far as possible, its escape into the thirsty 
air of the arid region by surface evaporation, less depth and more 
thorough surface pulverization are required. Recent practice has 
been tending toward deepersummercultivation.sothat.as previously 
claimed, 5 or 6 inches of loose, finely divided soil is now obtained 
where formerly half that depth was considered adequate. It has 
also been shown that frequent stirring of this fine surface layer 
checks evaporation, even when no water is applied to compact the 
surface or where no weeds grow to draw upon the soil moisture. 
In a word, the aim of tillage in the arid region, so far as it relates 



IRRIGATION AND COVER CROPS ^fjg 

to moisture supply in the soil consists in opening the soil to rain, 
or to irrigation, and in subsequently closing it to evaporation. These 
are the principles which were recognized and applied in California 
half a century ago and are now enjoying somewhat sensational 
renaissance in the "dry farming" agitation in the interior of the 
United States. 

A Negative Declaration. — It is interesting that current practice 
affords full demonstration of the foregoing claims both positively 
and negatively. The negative argument in favor of moisture con- 
servation by clean summer cultivation is found in the fact that 
growers in regions of heaviest rainfall approve the growth of cover 
crops, like clover, after the trees reach bearing age, and also that 
others employ scant summer cultivation, or cultivation for a short 
period only. The idea of these growers is that such practices relieve 
the soil of excessive moisture, either by the growth of the cover 
crop or by facilitating surface evaporation, and so prevent the tree 
from being stimulated to too large wood growth, or maintaining 
growth so late in the season as to enter the frost period in too 
active a condition and with new wood not properly matured. Quite 
in contrast with this is the practice, which is gaining ground in the 
hottest parts of the irrigated region, of growing alfalfa as a cover 
crop for the purpose of shading the soil and thus reducing soil tem- 
perature and, perhaps, of avoiding the ill efifects of the reflection of 
burning sun heat from a smooth surface of light-colored soil, or 
the ill effect of "burning out of humus" by clean summer culture. 
In such cases more irrigation is needed to supply enough water for 
the growth of both trees and cover crop. But at present these ex- 
ceptions are of rare occurrence. 

Cultivation Not Determined by Irrigation. — The adoption of a 
policy of clean cultivation in the dry season is not conditioned upon 
the amount of moisture available either by rainfall or irrigation. It 
is pursued both where irrigation is practiced and where it is not, 
and also where the rainfall is greatest and where it is least. It pre- 
vails in the humid region where rainfall may rise to 60 inches or 
more and in the arid region where it may not exceed one-tenth as 
much. As a matter of fact, there does not appear to be a good fruit 
soil so deep and retentive that it can retain enough even of a very 
heavy rainfall to effect good tree growth and fruit bearing if it is 
forced to sustain the loss by evaporation from a compact surface 
during the long dry season following. There may be, it is true, soils 
weak in capillary, in which water can not rise from a great depth 
and in which deep rooting plants may find ample water in the sub- 
soil, providing it is held there by impervious underlying strata. 
There are many more instances where loss by natural drainage is 
added to loss by evaporation. But, disregarding exceptions, the 
loss of moisture by both drainage and evaporation during the dry 



180 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



season is so great that the soil to a depth of several feet loses 
practically all the water which is available for plant growth, and 
the trees fail or become unprofitable. Loss by drainage can not, 
practically, be prevented, but loss by evaporation can be so reduced 
that trees and vines will be adequately supplied in spite of the loss 
by drainage. Because, therefore, the soil can not retain enough 
water in its natural state, no matter how much it may receive, clean 
summer cultivation, involving quite complete and more or less 
frequent stirring of the surface to the depth of 5 or 6 inches, as dis- 
cussed in Chapter XIII, is the almost universal practice, irre- 
spective of local rainfall or of irrigation. 

Cultivation, However, Determines Success of Irrigation. — The 

prevailing motive for cultivation in the dry-summer region is moist- 
ure retention. In this respect good surface tilth is so effective that, 
though enough moisture can not be retained without it, so much 
can be retained with it that, even where irrigation or rainfall is 
moderate in amount, it may serve all purposes of the tree or vine. 
-Thus cultivation enters into the fruit-growers' practice in the 
region under consideration, not to make large rainfall effective as it 
does in some parts of the region, but to make moderate rainfall 
effective, or to make small irrigation effective, by increasing the 
duty of water which is applied. It becomes not only a ruling con- 
sideration in the effectiveness of a certain amount of rainfall, as 
has already been suggested in another connection, but it also deter- 
mines the success of irrigation and the amount of water required ; 
for, although it was an early and rude practice to rely upon irri- 
gation to support uncultivated fruit trees and to irrigate more and 
more frequently as the ground became harder from its use, this 
policy has now no standing in commercial fruit growing. Not only 
was it wasteful of water, but it was otherwise detrimental to the 
thrift of trees. 

Cultivation and Irrigation Work for Soil Improvement. — Thor- 
ough cultivation, both in winter and summer, has other very impor- 
tant ends in view. It opens the soil and promotes aeration ; it en- 
courages deeper rooting and thus encourages the tree to take pos- 
session of a greater soil mass both for moisture and other plant 
food. It is part of the very valuable policy of increasing humus by 
plowing under the natural growth of weeds or specially sown 
legumes, which is discussed in Chapter XIV. This affords oppor- 
tunity to use water, beyond the amount the trees require, for soil 
improvement. 

WHEN TO IRRIGATE 

When to irrigate is governed by local conditions and the needs 
of different fruits, and can not be stated in general rules. There 
are, however, some principles involved which may be hinted at. 



WHEN TO IRRIGATE 



181 



Winter Irrigation, — On lands with sufficient depth of fairly re- 
tentive soil, the grower may artificially supplement a scanty rainfall 
by thoroughly soaking the land by winter irrigation and then by 
careful summer cultivation he will be able to conserve enough 
water in the soil to carry deciduous fruit trees or vines through 
bearing and autumn bud formation without further water supply. 
But there are other situations in which no amount of winter irri- 
gation nor rainfall will suffice for these ends. There are foothill 
orchard areas in which the winter rainfall is two or three times 
as great as in the valley situations where fruit is successfully 
grown without irrigation, and yet water must be applied in summer 
on those foot-hills or the fruit would be unmarketable and the trees 
in distress. The forty or more inches of rainfall falling on a shallow 
soil underlaid by a sloping bed-rock in some cases nearly sluices 
the cultivated soil from its foothold, and yet the oversaturation in 
winter avails nothing for summer growth, because most diligent 
cultivation can not retain moisture enough in shallow soil thus 
situated to sustain bearing trees in good crops of full-sized fruit. 
The same is true of valley soils underlaid by hard-pan. In such 
cases winter irrigation could add nothing but distress to the soil 
oversoaked by rainfall, and summer irrigation, well-timed and ade- 
quate, is the secret of success in the orchard. The same conclusion, 
although for very different reasons, must hold for soils underlaid 
by gravel or sand, and thus too rapidly dried by leaching. 

But even this generalization must be accepted only for sirua- 
tions endowed with conditions which justify it. There may be 
sloping hills with shallow soil where winter rainfall does not 
amount to saturation. Then winter irrigation to supply such irri- 
gation is desirable, and then, too, summer irrigation in proper 
amount and at proper intervals, will also be demanded. Among the 
foot-hills, also, there may be localities with depth of retentive 
soil in which water enough can be applied in winter to carry trees 
through the year. Thus we come again to the only safe generaliza- 
tion which can be made, and that is, that everywhere water must be 
adequate to the demands of the tree at the time it is needed, and 
whether it can best be applied in summer or winter, or both, or 
whether it is not necessary to make any artificial application at all, 
depends upon existing conditions which the grower must ascertain 
and to which his policy and practice must conform. It is a fact, 
however, that all soils, which under good cultivation are fairly 
retentive, winter irrigation, when water is most abundant, and 
usually carries most sediment, can be made to go far toward mak- 
ing summer irrigation unnecessary for all deciduous fruits. 

As to winter irrigation, practice varies, some relying upon a 
single heavy flooding by using checks on contour lines, by which, 
perhaps, a foot in depth or more of water is allowed to soak into the 
soil; others use the same method of application in winter as in 



182 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



summer, and, therefore, give a number of irrigations in winter. 
There is, of course, much less danger of injury by water to decid- 
uous growths in winter, because they are dormant, though an eye 
should be kept on drainage for excessive irrigation as for excessive 
rainfall. The grape and the pear are known to endure long sub- 
mergence, but some other fruits are sensitive about it. 

Slimmer Irrigation.— When this shall begin and when end are 
to be locally determined. In some places even the earliest fruits 
can not reach satisfactory size and quality without irrigation. In 
others rainfall with winter irrigation will suffice for proper devel- 
opment of early fruits, but not for late. In both cases the fruit 
may be satisfactory, but the tree unable to hold its leaf vigor until 
the work of the growing season is properly completed. It is then 
apparent that local practice must vary in order to reach the uni- 
versal fact, and that is that all through its active season the tree 
must have constant and adequate moisture supply. Many evils in 
lack of bearing, in dying-back, in unseasonable activity and the 
like are due to inadequate, intermittent and, in some cases, to exces- 
sive moisture in the soil. 

Cultivation and Irrigation. — Although the relations of irrigation 
and cultivation have been freely discussed, it must be remarked 
in this connection that with such an extension of irrigation practice 
as is now realized, there is danger that those who have previously 
trusted so fully upon good cultivation may SAving to the other 
extreme and trust too much to the stream of water and too little 
to the plow and cultivator. There is a temptation this way when 
one finds that he can run water in large amounts very cheaply. 
Not only is there danger of over-irrigation in the growth of tree 
and fruit, but the ill effects of water upon the soil, when unattended 
by good cultivation, are constantly threatened. The tree needs 
air as well as water; it needs a certain free condition of the soil 
for its best root action. These needs can be amply secured when 
adequate application of water is quickly followed by soil-stirring. 
Irrigated soil rightly treated is delightfully mellow and free and 
of condition to invite the fullest activity on the part of the tree. 
Irrigated ground not properly treated becomes compacted, fissured, 
cloddy and generally hateful, losing moisture rapidly, setting 
around the roots like cement and tearing them by its subsequent 
shrinkage. These conditions do not occur on the lighter soils, 
and yet even these are best when cultivated in a rational manner. 

METHODS OF IRRIGATION 

There are various methods employed in California for the con- 
veyance and application of water to trees and vines. Some of the 
principal ones will be described. 




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183 



184 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



As this writing does not pretend to be a treatise on irrigation 
engineering, no attempt will be made to describe the more ambi- 
tious undertakings, which should never be entered upon without 
the engagement of a qualified engineer. Nor is it possible to dis- 
cuss the numerous devices which are covered by patents. Invest- 
ment should always be preceded by visits to irrigation works now 
in operation, and procedure should be guided by observation. The 
hints presented herewith relate chiefly to things the irrigator can 
do for himself. 

Free Flooding. — Flooding — that is, the free flow of water over 
the whole surface, or the flow between rows with furrows near 
the trees to retain the water in the interspaces — is only employed 
on some flat lands where winter irrigation is used to supplement 
rainfall when the latter is occasionally below normal. In such 
cases water is available in large quantities, and the lay of the land 
favors quite even distribution. Even under these conditions the 
experience of growers soon leads to the adoption of deep furrows 
or lateral ditches, or some simple check system, as superior to 
flooding. Summer flooding is done only by those who are unac- 
quainted with better methods or who count their trees of too little 
account to warrant extra efifort. It seems, therefore, a fair con- 
clusion that flooding is only resorted to as a temporary expedient 
and has little standing. 

The Check System. — With soils of such character that vertical 
percolation is very rapid, flooding in checks, by which water is 
held upon a particular area until it sinks below the surface, is 
considered necessary. There is a tendency to change from this 
method to a furrow system wherever practicable, because the 
former requires more soil shifting, a larger head of water for eco- 
nomical operation, more labor to handle it, more working in water 
and mud, and more difficult cultivation to relevel the land and to 
reduce a puddled surface to satisfactory tilth. For these and other 
reasons, perhaps, on loams of medium fineness one may find two 
adjacent growers pursuing different methods, while on coarse, 
porous loams the check system prevails, and on fine, retentive loams 
the furrow system is without a rival. 

The check system can be seen on the most extensive scale in 
the upper part of the San Joaquin Valley, where the land is so 
level and water so abundant that the checks can be measured by 
acres or fractions of acres. In its most perfect form it is found 
in Orange County and some parts of Los Angeles County, where 
the checks are measured by feet, rarely by rods. Very large checks 
are chiefly used for field crops, although also employed for winter 
irrigation of vineyards and orchards of deciduous fruits. With 
fruits, however, even in the same district, the tendency is toward 
using smaller checks carefully leveled before planting. With the 



THE WAY TO MAKE CHECKS 



185 



large-check system permanent levees, either in rectangular form 
or on the contour plan, are generally used. The small-check system 
is chiefly laid off with temporary levees, quickly made with special 
appliances and as quickly worked back to a level as soon as the 
ground dries sufficiently after irrigation, and the whole surface 
kept well cultivated until the time arrives for a restoration of the 
levees for the next irrigation. The latter is the leading horticul- 
tural mode. It is carefully described by Mr. Sydmer Ross, of 
Fullerton, Orange County, California, as follows : 

The check system, as carried out in the best-handled orchards, entails 
much hard work, but after you are through with an irrigation you know that 
each and every tree has had its full supply of water or you know the reason 
why. The ground must be cultivated, say, about 5 inches deep, so as to have 
plenty of loose soil with which to throw up a high ridge. Then a four or 
six horse "ridger" should be run once each way between the rows, if it is a 
citrus or deciduous orchard, or twice should the trees be walnuts, because 
these trees are grown about 40 feet apart. After this is done the ridger 
should be run entirely around the outside of the piece to be irrigated, so as 
to have as perfect a ridge as possible on the outside. One man will ridge 
about 15 acres in a day. The ridger should be built with a steel plate extend- 
ing along the bottom of both sides, bolted to the inside and projecting about 
2 inches, so as to take good hold of the ground. Then with one horse 
attached to what is locally known as a "jump scraper," one side of the checks 
should be closed up, for the ridger in making the cross ridges breaks down 
the first ridge at its intersection. These repairs were at first made with a 
shovel, but the jump scraper, also called locally the "horse shovel," closes 
up the gaps very quickly. The practice generally followed is to close up the 
high side of the checks if the land does not cut by running water, but if it 
cuts, close up the lower side. 

After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed out and then the V- 
shaped "crowder" is run twice through them. On lands inclined to cut it is 
advisable that the length of the rows to be irrigated should not. be over 250 
feet, but in heavy land this distance can be considerably increased, if neces- 
sary, without danger of cutting the ridges by too long a run of water. 

If the checks have been closed up on the low side of the ridge, it is 
better to run the water to the ends of the ditch and water the last row first; 
but if the high side has been closed up, it is best to water first the row 
nearest the gate or the main ditch, as the case may be, as in each instance 
dry earth will thus be available, if necessary, to close up the checks. The 
water is run down the row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is 
filled it is closed up, and so on till all are filled and closed, when the water 
is turned down the next row. 

To do good work it is usual to allow three men for every 50 inches of 
water, but in our own practice we have had much better results by dividing 
up our water and running from 35 to 40 inches to a ditch and allowing two 
men for such streams. In doing this we get better work and find it much 
easier for the men. If everything is well in hand, each man will irrigate 
about 30 acres in a day. 

For turning the water from the ditches into the checks metal dams or 
tappoons are used. Some of these have a gate for the division of the water 
when the stream is too large and is divided, and two rows are watered at the 
same time. The gate is not a great success, as the water is apt soon to 
cut its way under the tappoon, but it may be much improved by having a 
shelf for the water to drop on after it passes through the opening. The com- 
mon practice for dividing water is to throw a tappoon partly across the ditch, 
putting a gunny sack on the opposite side to prevent cutting by the water. 
This is, on the whole, fully as satisfactory as using the tappoon with a gate. 

All who follow this system should get ready for the water before it comes. 
A great many seem to think that if they ridge up their land, close up the 
checks, and plow out their ditches, everything necessary has been done. 
Such is not the case, as ditches that are liable to cut should be fixed in the 



186 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



weak places with brush or burlaps. Old gunny sacks cut open and spread 
out are excellent for this purpose. Occasionally there are places where it 
is impossible to get a perfect ridge. These should be looked up and fixed 
with a shovel. The jump scraper will not entirely close up a check; it gen- 
erally requires a shovelful or two to complete it. It is usual after the water is 
turned down one row to fix up the next one, but it is an excellent plan to 
have a few rows fixed up ahead, for there come times when breaks occur 
and there is not time to make the necessary repairs, and when water once 
gets the start there is apt to be much trouble and hard work before it can 
be put under control, besides doing poor work. 

After the ground is dry enough to work, the ridges are split with a listing 
plow or a furrower attached to a cultivator. Then the ground should be run 
over with a harrow, setting the teeth to go well in, so as to pulverize the 
surface thoroughly. By using the harrow the ground can be worked about 
one day earlier than with the cultivator, and it also prevents the ground from 
baking till such time as it can be worked with the latter implement, besides 
doing far better work than with the cultivator alone, especially when there 
is much land to go over, as some of it is certain to get too dry before it can 
be reached, and then it will not pulverize well. All trees should be worked 
around by hand with either a fork or hoe as soon after irrigation as the 
ground becomes dry enough and before it becomes hard. 

Specifications for Homemade Implements for the Check System. 

— The following implements, used in preparing the ground for irri- 
gation by the check system, were made on the fruit ranch of J. 
B. Neff, Anaheim, California, with the tools ordinarily found on 
a ranch and with but little help from the blacksmith : 




The "Ridger." 

For levee making in the checlv system of irrigating trees and vines. 



The ridger. — This has sides of 2 by 16 inch pine 7 feet long, stand- 
ing 18 inches apart at the rear and 5 feet apart at the front end. The 
sides may be made of two 2 by 8 inch pieces with 2 by 3 inch 
battens bolted on securely. The front crossl^ar is of 2 by 4 inch 
pine 6 feet 2 inches long and is set 20 inches from the end. The 
rear crossbar is of 2 by 4 inch pine 4 feet 4 inches long. It is set 
7 inches from the end of the sides. The diagonal braces are 1 l)y 3 
inch pine 6 feet 10 inches long. The short side braces are 2 by 3 
inch pine 15 inches long. The lower inside edge should be pro- 
tected by a strip of steel or iron 1-8 by 2 inches extending to and 
around the front ends, which should be beveled to a sharp edge. 



TOOLS FOR RIDGING 



187 



The inside should also be lined with sheet iron 6 or 8 inches above 
the 1-8 by 2 inch piece, and should have sheet iron pieces extending 
16 inches beyond the rear end of the sides, tapered and braced in 
the manner shown in the cut, for the purpose of making the 




Use of homemade ridger, orange orchard of A. D. Bishop, 
Orange County, Cal. 

ridger firmer at the top. Every part of the ridger should be 
firmly bolted with 3-8 inch bolts, except the 1-8 by 2 inch iron, 
which should have 3-16 inch bolts, and the sheet iron, which may be 
put on with nails. The hooks on sides for hitching draft chain 
are 3-8 by 1 1-2 inches, and the draft chain is 3-8 inch cable chain. 

The V-shaped Crowder or Ditcher. — -This has sides of 2 by 12 
inch pine and cross-brace of 2 by 9 inch pine. The long side is 
7 feet 8 inches long and short side 3 feet 6 inches long. This is 
also protected by a piece of steel or iron extending entirely around 
the ditcher and bolted with 3-16 inch bolts. The sides come 
together in a point and stand at an angle of 45 degrees. The brace 
is placed 2 feet 10 inches from the point on short side and 3 feet 
10 inches from the point on long side. It also has two handles, 
as shown in cut, 3 feet long. These are made of 2 by 3 inch pine 
reduced so as to hold conveniently. The sloping handle is bolted 



188 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




The "Crowder." 

Used in the preparation for distribution of water in the checli system. 

to the short side. When in use this implement stands with the 
short side elevated at an angle of about 35 degrees, and a floor is 
placed in the triangular space so that it will be level when in use. An 
ordinary wide clevis is used for the draft and is placed as shoAvn 
in the cut. A vertical hole may be made in front of the clevis pin 
and a small rod driven in to strengthen the hold of the clevis. 




"The Jumper." 

Used to complete levees by the "ridger" for the check system. 

The Jump Scraper or Horse Shovel. — This is used for filling 
gaps in the ridges and is the work of the blacksmith. The beams 
are 1-4 by 1 1-4 inches and 30 inches long from the draft ring to the 
bend downward. The shovel is of No. 16 sheet iron 24 inches long 
by 18 inches deep. The handles are those used on any cultivator. 
The beams are bent to stand 6 inches forward of a square placed 
on top of the beams. The braces are of 3-8 inch round iron. The 
shovel is slightly cupped to make it hold more earth. 

The Portable Gate or Tappoon. — These are for shutting ditches, 
and are made of No. 16 sheet iron 2 feet wide and of any desired 




6 



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189 



190 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



length, but usually 3 feet, 4 feet or 5 feet long. The corners are 
cut off to a circle, starting about 1 foot back of the corner. The 
handles are made of two pieces of 1 by 3 inch pine, 12 inches longer 
than the gate, and are placed one on each side of the sheet iron 
and secured by 1-4 inch bolts. 

The Combined Check and Furrow Method. — An effort to escape 
in some measure the puddling of the surface which results from 
allowing water to sink away upon finely pulverized soil, lies in 
the direction of breaking up the soil roughly in the bottoms of the 
checks, which facilitates the quick passage of the water into the 
subsoil. This is done by running a small plow or three large culti- 
vator teeth attached to a single frame before the ridger is used to 



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Combined check and furrow irrigation. 



form the levees. Mr. A. D. Bishop of Orange County, California, 
uses a combined furrow and check system, as shown in the accom- 
panying diagram. He furrows the land first with a three-tooth 
furrower at right angles to the direction in which the water is to 
flow, and then uses the ridger to make levees in line with the water, 
laying out the work so as to get the closest approximation to a 
level. When the levees are made, the jump scraper is used and 
the end of each third or fourth furrow bank is connected with the 
levees at alternating sides of the check made by the levees. This 
causes the water to flow through the furrows from side to side and 
distribute itself evenly over the whole ground. The number of 
furrows which can be passed before connecting with the bank 
depends upon the slope of the land — the nearer level the land the 



HILLSIDE IRRIGATION 



191 



greater the distance that can be left between the connections, and 
vice versa. In this way the water is taken slowly down a grade 
where it would flow too rapidly were it admitted to furrows in the 
direction of its flow. 

Another combination of the check and furrow system is found 
where the lowest spaces of a slope irrigated by furrows are laid ofif 
in checks to catch the overflow from the furrows and compel its 
percolation at a point, which would otherwise receive too little 
water. The parts of a furrow system which lie farthest from the 
source of supply are obviously least supplied, because long flow 
can not be maintained there without much loss from overflow. 
Holding the water in checks at the lower end — usually for two 
rows of trees — is quite a help toward even distribution. 

The Basin System. — The term basin should be restricted to 
inclosures which do not aim at covering the whole surface, but 
only a small area immediately surrounding the tree. The check 
system is clearly a more rational and perfect method of flooding. 
When basins were used on ground capable of irrigation by the 
check or furrow systems, it was probably due to a misconception 
which has prevailed also in the practice of fertilization, that the 
tree derived its chief benefit from the soil immediately surround- 
ing and beneath its bole, and that distant applications were likely 
to be wasted. Years ago it was held that the lateral root exten- 
sion of a tree was equal to the spread of its branches, but recent 
investigations have shown that under favorable soil conditions the 
root extension is vastly greater. It is not reasonable then to restrict 
water or other plant food to the region chiefly occupied with 
the stay roots and not the feeding roots of the tree, and it is a 
frequent observation that basined trees do not do so well and that 
they show distress sooner than those under systems which secure 
more complete water distribution. 

To the basin system may, however, be conceded these possibili- 
ties : (1) Trees may be grown on hillsides too steep for other means 
of irrigation unless the hillside be previously terraced ; (2) the 
basins afiford an opportunity to use a very small stream of water 
by allowing it to run for a long time in each basin, thus making 
a miniature reservoir at the base of each tree ; (3) for young trees 
a small amount of water may sustain growth, while with other 
methods the same amount of water would be almost wholly lost 
by evaporation or percolation, or both ; (4) the expense of wider 
application of water and the necessary after cultivation is obviated. 

In planting on hillsides, terracing is the foundation of the basin 

•system. Terraces are plowed and scraped out until they have 

width enough to accommodate a line of basins and a ditch at the 

foot of each bank to supply them. The terraces are given a little 

fall, alternating in direction so that the water, , starting from the 



192 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



ridge above, is dropped through a box, or otherwise let down, from 
the low end of one terrace to the high end of the next, and so on 
until the stream reaches the bottom of the slope. As a basin is 
reached it is filled and closed and the water sent along to the next 
and so on. As these basins are usually small and shallow they 
are filled two or three times in succession at each irrigation. 

Wherever water can be handled in contour ditches or furrows, 
terracing should seldom be undertaken for commercial purposes. 
With slopes which do require terracing, basins on the steeper parts 
are largely made by hand labor, after plowing to loosen the whole 
surface, and the operation consists in moving the earth from the 
upper side of the tree, so as to form a circular levee on the lower 
side, until the tree stands in a level, roundish pan as large as can 
be made without too much excavation and filling. As the slope 
becomes less the basins enlarge and reach a diameter, finally, 
where the sides can be made by turning a small horse or mule 
around the tree with a plow, the rim being further raised and 
shaped by hand so as to hold 3 inches or more of water without 
danger of breaking away. 

The basins are filled with a small stream by ditch or hose or 
pipe line, according to the ground and notion of the irrigator. They 
are filled at such intervals as the water supply admits or the growth 
seems to need. The basin bottom is rarely disturbed. The crack- 
ing soil is finally given another dose of water to close up its 
wounds; meantime the frequent surface soaking puddles the soil 
and the conditions unfavorable to growth arrives sooner or later, 
according to the disposition of the soil to run together by water 
settling. Drying and cracking is lessened by filling the basin 
with manure or rotten straw or other light rubbish, or by a layer 
of coarse sand on the bottom. As the tree grows the foliage 
shades the basin and thus reduces evaporation. 

The Furrow System. — The furrow system is the prevailing 
method of irrigating fruit lands except with some soils which can 
be better handled with less water by the check system. The fur- 
row system has, however, a very marked theoretical advantage 
in the escape from saturating the surface soil, which has to dry 
out again before it can be cultivated, and it is only with difficulty 
reduced to fine tilth after such puddling. Another advantage is in 
saving the Avater used in moistening soil which has to be dried 
by evaporation. Other theoretical advantages lie in the even dis- 
tribution of the water with the least displacement of the soil and 
the introduction of the water to the subsoil, where deep-rooting 
plants should derive their chief sustenance. It is becoming quite 
clear that all these theoretical advantages have not been realized 
by the furrow system as generally practiced, and a number of 
modifications are mow being introduced which promise their fuller 



LARGE FURROW SYSTEM 



193 



realization. The changes now taking place tend toward reducing 
the difference between what are known as the "large-furrow" and 
the "small-furrow" methods, because the improvement lies chiefly 
in introducing the water more deeply in the soil, as will be shown 
later, and this is done by using fewer and deeper furrows. 

Irrigating by Large Furrows. — Where one to four furrows are 
used, these are large furrows, while the small-furrow system uses 
from five to eight or more between two rows of trees. Large fur- 
rows are made with the double-moldboard plow, or with a single 
plow followed by the "crowder," or by plowing out dead furrows 
between the rows, etc. Their number depends upon the size of 
the trees and the fitness of the soil for lateral seepage. They are 
wide enough and deep enough to carry or hold a large stream 
of water and is a method used chiefly for winter irrigation on land 
which is so nearly level that the water will flow slowly into the 




Large furrow. 

Large furrow irrigation of orange trees at Palermo, Butte County, Cal. 



furrows and stand there until it disappears by percolation. It is 
also used where one of two summer irrigations are all that are 
required to carry the trees through. It is obviously adapted only 
to land of slight and uniform grade. Irrigation by a single furrow 
cut near to the row of trees is a widely prevalent method Avith 
young trees. When- the trees are larger, or when intercultures 



]^94 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

are undertaken, the large furrows are multiplied. In this case the 
water is admitted to the furrows from a board flume. Large fur- 
rows are often used in a bearing orchard, the furrows being filled 
from a lateral ditch, this lateral being parallel to the main ditch. 
In this case the board dam is used to divert the lateral into one 
large furrow after another, and when the furrow is filled dirt is 
thrown in to prevent the reflow of the water into the lateral. 

The great variety in large furrow practice is suggested in the 
foregoing. A systematic manner of proceeding is that of Mr. A. 
Trost, of Palermo, California, as described by himself: 

The soil is red, gravelly clay, the upper 12 inches without rocks; below 
this the gravel is more rock, ^t the depth of 3 or 4 feet the red clay changes 
into a whitish one and water enters it very slowly. My orchard is 12 acres — 
1,120 feet long from north to south and 510 feet from east to west. The 
northeast corner is the highest. Here the water ditch enters, and I run 
my head ditch along the east side from north to south. There are' 51 rows 
of trees in that direction, the north and south outside rows being olives. 
There are 23 orange trees in the row from east to west and 1 olive tree on 
the west end. All trees are 20 feet apart. I use 24 miner's inches per day 
for 5 days in the following manner: I use 4 furrows about 5 or 6 inches deep 
and about 3 feet apart between rows, leaving the furrows nearest the trees 
from 5 to 6 feet from the trunks. The 4 lower rows on the west side I cross 
furrow with 2 furrows between the trees. I divide the 24 inches into 51 
equal streamlets by using one gate for each 4 rows. First turn this amount 
in the furrow south nearest to tree. When the water has moved to the olive 
tree, I divide the water between the 4 furrows for the lower 6 trees and 
through the cross, furrows. The next morning I divide the water at the tenth 
tree for the 4 furrows. On the third day I let only one-half the water 
go down in the furrow south of tree, the other in the one north nearest 
to tree. On the fourth day I turn part of it in the middle furrows near 
the head ditch, and by the fifth day I have my place equally wet from one 
end to the other, taking care that the top soil near the trunks of trees remains 
dry on the surface. I keep the soil around the trunks of the trees about 
2 inches higher for a width of 3 feet. In this way I use all the water with- 
out running any off, and lose only the evaporation. The whole amount of 
water used is 120 inches, equal to 10 inches or 130,000 gallons per acre, or 
4.5 acre-inches or 1,200 gallons per tree. 

I irrigate about every four weeks, running the water five days and turning 
it on again three weeks after it is taken off. I have irrigated as early as the 
1st of April and as late as the middle of October, depending on late rains 
in spring and early rains in fall; usually from five to six irrigations per year. 
After four or five days I cultivate 14 feet wide between the trees from 6 to 8 
inches deep; for this I use a 7-foot cultivator and four horses. Near the 
trunk of the tree I work about 2 inches deep and a little farther away 4 
inches deep, using the three-cornered orchard plow with a cultivator 4 feet 
wide and two horses. 

Irrigation by Large Furrows Without Summer Cultivation. — ■ 
An exception to the continuous cultivation of orchard ground 
which is prevalent in the irrigated regions of the Pacific coast is 
found in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada in California, where 
furrows are made at the beginning of each irrigating season and 
used continuously during that summer. The ensuing winter plow- 
ing and early spring cultivation are relied upon to keep the soil 
in good condition. Although this constitutes an exception and 
the practice is widely followed for what seems to the growers of 



FOOT-HILL IRRIGATION 195 

the region to be a good and sufficient reason, it does not militate 
against the truth of the continuous summer cultivation policy 
which elsewhere prevails, nor does it follow that this policy would 
not be better in some respects even in the region where it is 
abandoned. It is a district of very large water supply, and the 
arrangements of the water company are such that the grower must 
pay for a certain number of inches of water by the year and is 
entitled to this amount of continuous flow. He has to use it or 
neglect it as it flows, and can not get more at one time by not using 
it at another. For this reason he has not the motive for close 
observation which prevails under other conditions, and to escape 
the cost of summer cultivation and fresh furrowing out he has 
recourse to frequent flows in the old furrows. The following 
interesting account of the prevailing method was prepared by Mr. 
W. R. Fountain, of Newcastle : 

Water is supplied almost exclusively by one company, which has met 
requirements up to date and seems fixed to supply in excess of demand. It 
is supplied by the miner's inch; price $45 per inch per season for a constant 
supply. The inch is measured under 6-inch pressure. 

Beginning May 1st, five months is called the irrigating season, but the 
purchaser can have the water twelve months per annum if he wants it. The 
water company collects monthly. The purch'aser can not start the season 
with little and increase at pleasure, except upon payment for. the full season on 
the basis of the largest amount used at any time. 

With this constant supply we use it constantly, piping to high points and 
moving it from place to place. When no fruit is ripening it is attempted to 
water a block of trees in twenty-four hours. The water is not checked 
back, but is run in ditches, mostly in one, but occasionally in two, along each 
row of trees or vines. When a variety of fruit is ripening more water is 
given the trees, while after a variety is picked and before any other is nearly 
ripe the effort is made to water each tree every ten or twelve days. Level 
land and low spots stand a good chance, as a rule, to get too much water, 
and a larger stream is used per row to force the water through quickly. Then 
it is taken off in a shorter time than it would be where the trees are on a 
side-hill and have good drainage. 

About I inch for each 8 acres is generally used. This is for deciduous 
fruits. The citrus fruits and berries require watering about once a week; if 
there is good drainage they would prosper if watered every three days. In 
such ground I have not heard of their getting either too much water or too 
much fertilizer. The general practice is to plow, cross plow, and then after 
each rain cultivate, with no cultivation whatever after beginning the use of 
water. I think an occasional cultivation after watering would help. 

There is a tendency for the ditches to become packed after water has 
been flowing through them for some time, in which case but little water 
soaks into the ground. When this occurs, I dig a pot-hole in the ditch 
to allow the water to soak in, or else loosen the ground about the trees 
with a spade and carry the ditch through this loosened ground. I block out 
my ditches so that I can get my stream through the last tree in about sixteen 
hours. Where the water has not reached the end of some of the ditches, I 
turn the water into it from a stream that is flush, and by keeping a man 
with a hoe constantly with the water, I manage to get it over the field at 
about 4 p. m. I wet about 350 trees in a block on hillsides; on a flat I wet 
less, using more water in each stream, and changing it about every twelve 
hours instead of every twenty-four hours. My trees grow about 130 to an 
acre. 



196 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Systematic Distribution of Water on Hillsides. — The common 
method of carrying water in pipes to the various high points of 
several slopes or "irrigation faces" from which it can be admitted 
to large furrows crossing or descending those faces is open to 
some difficulties and disarrangements. P. W. Butler, of Penryn, 




NEARLY LEVEIL 



Zigzag ditches. 

Large furrow system on hillsides with zigzag ditches for distribution, catcliment, 

and redistribution. 



has had in successful operation for several years a system of zig- 
zag ditches for carrying and distributing and for catching outflow 
and redistributing on a lower face. This is also a system which 
makes ditches and furrows but once a year and dispenses with 
summer cultivation. Mr. Butler's account, as illustrated by the 
accompanying diagrams, is as follows : 

The amount of water generally used in this section for the irrigation of 
deciduous fruit trees is 1 inch to 5 acres of orchard (miner's inch under 6- 
inch presstire), and is applied to each row of trees by one stream of water 
of sufficient quantity to just reach the end of the row. Much of the water 
is thus wasted because of inability to properly adjust its distribution. It is 
usually run twenty-four hours, then changed to other parts of the orchard 
until the whole is covered, which takes about three weeks' time, when the 
process is repeated, continuing throughout the summer, or from May 1 until 
October 1. There is no cultivation in the meantime, and at each irrigation 
the water is run in the same ditches. This system is followed in nearly all 
the orchards of Penryn and vicinity, some on ciuite steep hillsides, which 
suffer when the water is thus applied. I have never liked this method, and 
for many years have used a different systenr in irrigating all orchards over 
which I have had "control. In my home orchard I have a reservoir on the 
highest land, from which water can be conveyed as desired to every part. 



DEEP FURROWS AT RIVERSIDE 



197 



My ditches are run on a grade with a fall from 2 to 3 inches to the rod and 
from 5 to 8 feet apart. At each irrigation the water' is run about thirty-six 
hours before changing. The round of the orchard is made in ten to fourteen 
days. None of my small ditches exceeds 400 feet in length. When I begin 
to irrigate a section I turn on from the reservoir water sufficient to cover 
that section in a few hours, then lessen it until it just reaches the end of each 
row, but see that it reaches the end of each row if a little surplus passes 
over. This surplus I take up in a main ditch, to be again used on lower 
ground. This is continued until the lowest part of the orchard is reached, 
and very little water is ever wasted. By running on a grade that is so nearly 
level the water is applied uniformly, even on the driest parts of the hill 
slopes. I run the main distributing ditches in a zigzag manner, taking water 
from these ditches to cover the lower sections. I formerly used pipes to 
lead the water down the steepest grades, but this system I have abandoned 
and now use open zigzag ditches for mains. From the main zigzag ditches 
I do not take the water. at the turning point, as there is more liability of 
breakage than if taken when running straight, or at whatever point is neces- 
sary to keep the distributing ditches on an average of 8 feet apart. The 
length of the zigzag ditches varies according to the slope of the hillside. 
When steep, the ditch, before turning, must be of greater length than where 
the ground is more level. (See diagram.) I use no gates, but bush the 
openings with coarse swale hay. I also bush the turning points of ditches, 
as they are in permanent use throughout the season, and after the first few 
days' use require but little care to keep them in order. These ditches are 
torn up during the season of cultivation and have to be renewed every year. 

I use a level set on a frame 8.25 feet long and about 2.5 feet high (one 
leg longer than the other) to make any grade desired. Then I drag its length 
on the ground after getting the level, and can mark the line of ditch nearly 
half as fast as a man can walk. 

During the last ten years I have used many thousand feet of pipe in irri- 
gating, but have found it too expensive to be practicable, and it frequently 
gets clogged, causing much trouble. The zigzag method of taking the water 
down hills on the dry ridges, distributing to right and left, picking it up 
again in zigzag ditches at the end of the rows or system, to be used again 
on lower ground, brings into use the largest quantity where it is most 
needed and utilizes it all without waste. 

Irrigating by Small Furrows. — It has already been suggested 
that recently the small furrow method of irrigation is undergoing 
certain modifications. The occasion for the change is that in 




Newer system of furrow irrigation at Riverside, Cal. 



198 



CALIFORNIA FllUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



certain of the heavier soils, particularly, the use of water in many 
shallow - furrows followed by cultivation results in the formation 
of a compact layer, and this prevents the percolation of the water 
into the subsoil. This discovery led many Southern growers to 
resort to fewer and deeper furrows and to new devices to enable 
the tree to get the benefit of the water. There has been wide 
use of the subsoil plow, with a wedge-shaped foot attached to a 
slim standard rising to the ordinary beam. The standard opposes 
its thin edge to the soil so as to cleave it with the least difficulty, 
and the foot, passing through or beneath the hardpan, lifts and 
breaks it. The result of the subsoiling is to open a way for the 
water to sink and spread below the hardpan. It is usual to run 
this plow once through the center of the interspace between the 
rows of trees, sometimes at right angles to the irrigation furrows. 
When this is done the water is admitted to the furrows as usual, 
but instead of flowing along smoothly it drops into the track of 
the subsoiler and runs there a long time before rising agam to 
continue its course down the furrow. It is the experience of some 
growers that the water has taken five or six days to reach the 
lower end of the furrows, a distance which would have been 
covered in twenty-four hours if the subsoiler had not intervened. 
This has been shown to result in much water for the subsoil and 
a notable invigoration of trees which had been famishing, although 
shallow-furrow irrigation had proceeded regularly. 

Recent changes in the furrow method at Riverside, California, 
are described by Mr. J. H. Reed as follows: 

The handling of the water in the orchard has materially changed in recent 
years. Instead of flooding up, basining, or using shallow furrows, deep fur- 




fc-^aO**-? 



•^■m^.^ 



Irrigation of fruit trees by large furrows between rows. 



CONDITIONS FOR DEEP FURROWING 



199 



rows, from 3 to 5 feet apart, are most g»enerally used. In heavy adobe soils 
more furrows are used than in the more porous granite soils. The most 
usual length of furrows is 40 rods. Every precaution is taken to have the 
surface wetted as little as possible. 

The amount of water run at a time is materially lessened. Formerly the 
common practice was to run 3 inches per acre for twenty-four hours each 
thirty days. Now, 2 inches continuous run for seventy-two hours is found 
to serve a much better purpose, except on loose soils. The general practice 
in the valley is to irrigate once each thirty days. A few of the most careful 
orchardists had found that by intelligent and thorough manipulation of the 
soil they obtained as favorable results from the application of water every 
sixty days or more, using the same amount as they formerly did at intervals 
of half that time. The writer has watched with much interest an eight-year- 
old orchard that during the three years preceding the present received in 
all but ten irrigations, the usual amount of water being used only at each 
four irrigations the first year and three irrigations each the second and third 
years, with results comparing favorably with those on trees of the same age 
on the same soil in neighboring orchards that received the ordinary thirty- 
day irrigations. While there are few orchardists who have the skill and 
patience required to secure such results, they show the possibilities of 
improved cultivation in conserving moisture. So long as water is abundant 
and not expensive, more frequent irrigations will probably be generally prac- 
ticed; but the advantage of running the water slowly for a longer time, ii:i 
furrows as deep as possible, covering the saturated bottoms as soon as prac- 
ticable and keeping the surface perfectly pulverized and in loose condition, 
is being generally recognized. 

The usual practice is now to have 6 deep furrows in 20-fdot 
spaces. The number varies according to the character of the soil, 
but is in any case less than in the small, shallow furrow system 
which formerly prevailed. 

The recourse to deeper furrows and to the subsoil plowing 
has been made in several citrus fruit districts of Southern Cali- 
fornia. Its success depends upon conditions. There are cases in 




The V-shaped "Crowder" and Metal Dams or "Tapoons." 




o 



« 



200 



CEMENT IN IRRIGATION 



201 



Avhich too deep use of the subsoiler has admitted the water at 
a point too low for best results to the tree which grows on a leachy 
subsoil, and the cutting of roots by the subsoiler has in some cases 
brought shallow-rooting trees into temporary distress. The gen- 
eral conclusion, however, is that deeper introduction of water favors 
deeper rooting and is very economical of water by preventing the 
loss by evaporation from the surface, which, theoretically, is dry, 
but which actually, with shallow furrows over an irrigation hard- 
pan, becomes too often saturated over nearly the whole space 
between the trees. 




Continuous cement flume with weirs to raise water to outlet tubes. 

Cement Pipes and Flumes for the Furrow System. — The use of 
cement in the construction of flumes has largely increased because, 
by means of locally devised machinery, continuous cement flume 
has been cheapened so that its first cost is less than that of lumber 
flume where suitably durable lumber is high. Similar machinery 
is used for the construction of continuous cement pipe, which is 
replacing open laterals in carrying water from main ditches to 
the land of individual irrigators. This pipe is made by a machine 
constructed by two Riverside men who are both machinists and 
practical orchardists. Sand and barrels of cement are distributed 
along the line ahead of the machine, as shown in the background 
of the picture. The mixing is done in fiat boxes, each being 
carried forward when emptied. One of the lines of large rubber 



202 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



hose conveys steam to the head of the cylinder of the machine 
and the other returns the spent steam. The mixed cement and 
sand is carried to the feeding box (shown in vertical position in 
the trench), from which it is dropped into the steel pipe form 
below. Steam pressure is then brought to bear upon it and then 
cut ofif by the lever; loose earth is thrown around the steel forming- 
cylinder as it moves forward and is firmed by the operator's 
feet ready to sustain the walls of the new pipe as the cylinder is 
withdrawn from it. More loose earth is thrown over the new 
pipe, which is allowed to harden before the trench is filled. 

Continuous cement flume is made in a similar manner, the 
machine working on the surface and the required pressure being 
given by a strong lever instead of by steam power. Instead of 
a cylindrical form, one to properly shape the flume is used. After 
this form is moved and before the cement hardens, grooves are 
made at intervals in the side walls to insert board dams to raise 
the water so that it will flow out of zinc tubes with gates, which 
are also put in place while the cement is plastic. Not only is such 
flume sometimes cheaper than board flumes, as stated above, but 
annoyance of leaking and cost of extensive repairs are done away 
with. 




Board flume and furrow irrigation at Fullerton. 

The Board Flume and the Furrow System. — Although in the 
older regions the cement flume is advancmg in popularity, import- 
ant service will always be rendered by the homemade board flume 
where suitable lumber is cheap. A detailed account of its con- 
struction and operation will be widely useful. The following is 
contributed by Mr. A. S. Bradford, of Orange County : 

I consider the board flume best because it is in many places cheapest 
and because it will last fifteen or twenty j^ears in California if made of good 
soft redwood. The common redwood lumber is generally so, but the so- 
called flume lumber is hard, generally, and will warp the flume out of shape. 
Even in the common redwood lumber hard pieces will be found, and these 



SOURCES OF IRRIGATION WATER 203 

should be avoided. My first flume has been in use nine years and is appar- 
ently as good as ever. 

The first thing to be considered is getting a flume put in properly, as this 
alone will cause much trouble if not done right. A flume should run nearly 
on a level. It should be placed about two-thirds in the ground at the com- 
mencement, and, as soon as it comes out of the ground to about two-thirds 
of Its height, there should be a drop made of 1, 2, or 3 inches, if necessary, 
and then carried along as before, so as to keep the entire length of flume 
practically on a level. 

Sixteen-foot lumber is better than longer, as it is lighter to handle. I 
prefer 8-inch sides with 18-inch bottom, or, in some cases, 10-inch sides 
with 16-inch bottom. The first section, however, should be about 2 feet 
wide, narrowed to the size of the flume, so as to control the stream. Collars 
should be put around the flume every 8 feet of distance; that is, one in the 
center and one to cover the joints at each end. These collars should be 2 by 
3 inch stuff on the bottom and sides and 1 by 3 inches on top. This makes a 
strong, durable flume. The length of the flume should be divided, so that 
the stream will decrease as it goes along. The width should be decreased 
also, say from 16 inches to 14, 12, 10, and 8 inches, the sides being the same 
throughout or reduced so as to have 10-inch sides on the 16-inch bottom 
and 8-inch sides on the rest, nailed to the side of the bottom, making 7 
inches depth inside. Two-inch holes should be about 30 inches apart and 
2-inch gates placed on the inside instead of outside, as they will collect less 
trash, the hole through the wood, if uncovered, making a lodgment for leaves, 
etc. In the narrow and flat flume it is much easier to fix the gates. 

From 8 to 9 furrows for trees set 24 feet apart is sufficient. The streams 
should be run from one-eighth to one-half the capacity of the holes in the 
flume, according to the soil and fall of ground. I commence the stream 
small and increase it if necessary later on. The streams should be kept as 
near together as possible, and when the end is reached the gate should be 
nearly closed down, so as to allow the stream to just trickle to the end. 
In this manner the soil will become thoroughly wet from one end to the 
other. The streams should be run very slowly on most of our soils. A great 
many failures have been made on hard soils by running the stream too large 
and then reducing it. This seems to "slick" or cement the soil so that it 
will not take the water, and the consequence is a poor and unsatisfactory 
irrigation. On the other hand, if the streams are started small and allowed 
to soak the ground as they go along, it is simply astonishing how much 
water can be put in the ground. On sandy soils the streams should be 
larger. A little practice would give any one the desired information. 

About three rows of trees at the lower end should be blocked up, provided 
one has no place where the overflow water could be used. This last pro- 
vision is the better, however, as there would be only about 10 inches of 
water run over the last three or four hours, and a thorough job would be 
done from one end to the other. 

In making furrows I have an extension made for by cultivator to bolt on 
each side and use four plows. With this extension I can wet the whole 
ground thoroughly. The furrows will extend under the limbs of the trees, 
and by making a slight curve around each tree the ground will become wet 
in the rows as well as between. 

As compared with the check system, the furrow method, properly handled, 
makes the soil light and loose, while the check system is apt to pack the 
soil, rendering it lifeless and leaving it so that it will not retain moisture 
long. Besides, the cost of ridging and extra labor in handling water in 
checks for one season will nearly pay for the flume by which one man can 
do the irrigating. Two horses will furrow out 10 acres in half a day, and a 
little hand labor at the flume will connect the furrows. In the check system 
generally a disk is run first where the ridges are to be made, and then the 
ridger is run with 4 horses ; then the jump scraper is run to stop up one side of 
the blocks; then ditches must be made; then from 2 to 3 men are required 
to handle the water by shutting up the checks when filled. Afterwards the 
ridges must be plowed down before the ground can be harrowed and got 
in condition to cultivate. At a glance one can see that it costs fully three 
times as much to irrigate by the check system as by the furrow system, 
and with the latter the soil acts more as it does after a rain. 



204 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



DEVELOPMENT AND STORAGE OF WATER 

It is, obviously, beyond the limitations of this work to attempt 
an extended review of irrigation enterprises and practices. The 
enterprises undertaken by capitalists, or by co-operation among 
settlers, require the services of competent engineers. All these 
matters are too great in extent and variety to be discussed in this 
work. As, however, it Has been the aim of the writer to aid the 
inexperienced planter to help himself in small efforts, a little space 
will be given to suggestions as to hoAv a planter may develop and 
use such small water supply as may be derived from spring, small 
creek or well, on his own land without employing an engineer. 

Running Lines for Irrigating Ditches.- — How far to go up a 
creek in order to bring water out upon a given piece of land is a 
question which frequently arises in individual practice. There is 
also doubt as to how much fall should be given to the ditch. The 
•fall required by a ditch or canal depends upon the amount of water 
which it is desired that it should discharge, and upon the width 
and depth with which it is intended that the water should flow. 
It may also be dependent upon the character of the soil in which 
the ditch is to be constructed, and upon the peculiarities of the water 
itself. A strong current in soft soil may cause mischievous ero- 
sions. Water carrying much sediment must never be allowed to 



B 




A homemade leveling instrument. 



move sluggishly, as clear water sometimes may. It is best to state 
the requirements to a competent engineer and act on his suggestion, 
or secure the counsel of a neighbor who has had experience with 
similar soil and water. 

Having decided what fall to give the ditch, the nearest point 
at which water can be taken out of the creek to be brought to a 
certain piece of' land is found by commencing with the point at 
which the water is to be delivered (generally the highest point of 



LOCATING DITCH LINES 



205 



the land to be irrigated), and running up stream a line which has 
the inclination intended for the ditch. 

To stake out this line when no special hindrances are in the 
way, use a home-made leveling instrument constructed as follows : 

With sound, straight-edged lumber a triangle is made, as indicated in 
the sketch. The three pieces, A B, 6 feet long, B C, 12 feet long, and C A, 
4 feet long, are made fast to each other at A, B, and C. The board, A D, 
is fastened to the triangle at right angles to B C. Near A, on the board, 
A D, s. plumb-line is made fast. The plumb, like a mason's plumb, hangs in 
a hole at F, so that when A D h vertical, the string hangs very near the 
surface of the board, A D. 

It will be seen that when A D is exactly vertical, 5 C is exactly horizontal, 
if the angles at D are true right angles. An ordinary carpenter's square used 
in the construction of the apparatus will insure sufficient accuracy in the position 
oi A D. 

In marking on the board, A D, however, the line in which the string of 
the plumb will hang when 5 C is exactly horizontal, more care is required. 
Two pegs are driven, as far apart as B and C, for these points to rest on. 
The highest one is driven into the ground until the plumb-line follows about 
the center line of the board, A D. Having marked this position of the plumb- 
line, the triangle is reversed so that the end B rests on the peg where be- 
fore we had the end C, and vice versa. Should the plumb-line be in a position 
at variance with the first one marked on the board, then the correct position 
for the B C horizontal will be exactly in the middle between the two found by 
the aid of the two pegs. 

It will frequently be found convenient to have a scale of feet marked off 
on B C. Holes in the pieces A B and C A at E E, or handles, will make the 
triangle convenient to carry. Only two men are necessary in using it. 




Starting with the "Jump Scraper" to close a row of gates. 

To use this instrument for locating the line of the ditch, cal- 
culate the amount which your line should rise between each two 



206 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

pegs. Drive a peg at the starting point with its top say six inches 
from the general surface of the ground. Hold one end of the 
leveling apparatus above this peg by exactly that amount which 
the line rises per each instrument-length (B C), and swing the 
other end around into the direction from which the ditch is to 
come, until, when level, it is just six inches above the ground. 
Drive a peg here, which will, like the first, be six inches high, and 
proceed as before. Care should be taken to give the top of each 
peg exactly the correct elevation. The level must be horizontal 
when resting on any peg, and raised exactly that amount which the 
line rises per level-length, above the preceding peg. It will be 
found convenient to use a carefully-prepared block to hold on the 
top of each stake at the rear end of the level instead of trusting 
to measurement each time. 

Locating Contour Lines for Checks or for Distributing Ditches. 

— This work can be done with the aid of the level above described. 
For instance, to locate a contour (a line of equal elevation), as 
required in the construction of a check levee, drive a peg until 
its top has a convenient elevation from the ground, say one foot. 
Rest one end of the triangle on this peg and swing the other 
around until, when 5 C is horizontal, this other end has exactly the 
same elevation from the ground as the top of the peg. .At this point 
drive a second peg and proceed as before. If the tops of the pegs 
be chosen as the height of the levee, they may be retained as grade 
stakes as well as line stakes 'for the embankment. 

Storing Water from Small Sources. — For individual uses quite 
a respectable water supply can sometimes be developed from 
apparently mean sources. This can be done by clearing out and 
opening up hillside springs, and often by tunneling into the hillside 
to intercept subterranean water-flows, or by pumping from a well. 
Even a small spring, yielding but two quarts per second, would be 
sufficient to irrigate several acres in fruit trees. To derive the 
greatest benefit from small springs, however, a reservoir is neces- 
sary, in which the flow of twelve to twenty-four hours, or even a 
longer period, can be accumulated, and then discharged as required. 
It is by using water in driblets that many springs are wasted. 
A spring supplying even one and a half inches of water would be 
wholly swallowed up by a thirsty soil within two hundred feet of 
its source, when, by arresting the flow and accumulating it in a 
reservoir and discharging at intervals in a volume four times as 
large, it would more than cover eight times the surface. A spring 
flowing two quarts per second will discharge forty-three thousand 
two hundred gallons in twenty-four hours. This would require a 
reservoir forty by twenty feet, and seven feet deep, or double that 
width if the depth is decreased one-half. The shallower it can be 



LOSSES OP WATER 207 

made the better, for many reasons, but especially on account of the 
temperature of the water. That of springs is generally too low in 
summer for immediate use, and its value is greatly enhanced by 
being raised to an equal or greater temperature than that of the 
air. This is quickly done by exposure in a shallow pond. A res- 
ervoir can be constructed entirely in the ground where the slope 
will admit of it, and by lining the bottom and sides with clay well 
puddled, will answer for most purposes. Some are built of adobe, 
backed with earth and plastered on the inner side with hydraulic 
cement. Concrete of lime, sand, and broken stone, is, however, 
the best material, where lime can be readily obtained, and any 
person with ordinary mechanical skill can construct them. The 
following hints on a dirt reservoir may be suggestive : 

A reservoir should be built on the highest part of the tract sought to 
be irrigated by scraping the earth from the outside and from such a large 
area as not to aflfect the utility of the land from which it is taken. With a 
levee all around 5 feet high, 5 feet of water could be carried safely. The 
slopes ought to be two to one on the inside. A reservoir 20 feet square 
and 4 feet deep would hold 12,000 gallons. With the slopes as above the 
reservoir should be measured 2 feet from the bottom, or half way up the 
4 feet of water; consequently to lay out a reservoir to hold 12,000 gallons, 
put the stakes 12 feet square and build. For any other size one take 8 feet 
ofif the same as in this. A reservoir 25 feet square will hold 18,750 gallons 
and would be 17 feet square at the bottom; one 30 feet square would hold 
27,000 gallons and would be 22 feet at the bottom; one 3'5 feet square — 27 
at the bottom — will hold 36,000 gallons; one 40 feet square — 32 on the 
bottom — will hold 48,000 gallons. This spread upon the surface of an 
acre would be a little more than 134 inches of rainfall. 

Almost any loam soil will hold water with a little puddling. The_ cheapest 
way to puddle is to build a pen the size of the intended reservoir, including 
at least a portion of that to be under the embankment, wet it very wet, 
put some hogs in the pen and keep feeding them barley, a little at a time, 
so as to make them not only walk around but root for the barley. A half 
sack of barley fed to eight or ten hungry hogs in half a day will make a 
good puddle. If it did not work satisfactorily the water could be taken ofif 
and the bottom covered about an inch deep with coarse sand mixed one 
part to five with Portland cement, put in dry, and let it be covered slowly. 
A barrel of cement may be counted at about 4 cubic feet and with the 
mixture above would cover the first-named reservoir about 1^ inches. This 
would make it tight. The supply pipe should come up from the bottom, so 
that the lift would never be more than the height of the surface. 

Loss of Water by Seepage. — The great loss of water by seepage 
during a long run has led to the cementing of ditches, and to the 
use of miles of large wooden, concrete and iron pipe by the irri- 
gation companies of Southern California ; also, where the slope is 
rapid, paving ditches with rock has been resorted to. Similar 
efforts naturally suggest themselves to the user of a small water 
supply to save his flow from loss. The lining of ditches to prevent 
seepage is being tested by the California Experiment Station at 
Berkeley, and publication of results is being made.* Where lumber 
is cheap the use of a board flume is an available means of saving 
water, when the soil is coarse and leachy. 



Bulletin 188 University of California Experiment Station. 



THE CURRENT WHEEL 



209 



Irrigation from Flowing Wells. — A considerable area of orchard 
is irrigated from flowing wells in different parts of the State. 
Nearly everywhere in the artesian districts there are local well- 
borers who have kept records of the strata traversed in their work 
and can estimate closely the cost of securing water by this method. 

Lifting Water from Flowing Ditch or Stream. — Where a stream 
has a rapidity of two miles or more per hour, and a lift to a height 
of six to sixteen feet will give head enough to distribute the water 
over a considerable area, there is nothing cheaper than the current 
wheel which is largely used in this State. The engraving gives an 
end view of such a wheel. Eight pairs of arms, carrying flat 
buckets like those of a steamboat paddle-wheel, extend from a hub 
rotating on metal bearings. At either end or both ends of each 
bucket are fixed wooden or tin water boxes which fill themselves 
on entering the water, and on being brought to the highest point 
of rotation empty themselves into a receiving trough. This trough 
supplies the distributing ditches, etc., and its inner end is so placed 
that it comes under the projecting buckets of the wheel without 
interference with the motion of the arms. The current of water 
in the channel underneath forces the buckets down stream, the 
latter delivering in the opposite direction at the top. By using 
a double set of boxes, one at each end of each bucket, the water 
may be delivered on both sides simultaneously. A little experi- 
menting will indicate the proper size boxes, which depends upon 
the velocity and volume of water in the channel as well as the 
amount to be delivered. 







End view of irrigating wheel. 



At the Fancher Creek Nursery, in Fresno County, a wheel is 
used eighteen feet in diameter, and carries sixteen buckets, which 
empty into a trough sixteen feet above the ditch. The wheel lifts 
about one cubic foot in two seconds. 



21Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION 

The use of pumps for irrigation is continually increasing. The 
capacity of pumps, their ease and cheapness of operation in this 
land of oil wells and of ponderous waterfalls whose power can be 
transformed into electric energy, warrant the conchision that in 
many places water can be lifted from below more cheaply than 
it can be brought long distances by ditch ; and that the supply is 
more constant and subject to the users' command and convenience. 
In all parts of the State well-boring and digging and pump con- 
struction have advanced very rapidly. Pumping plants of all 
capacities, from the greatest of the gasoline class, lifting fiva 
thousand gallons per minute from a depth of twenty-five feet, down 
to the plant with a throw of three hundred gallons per minute, 
all styles of motors and pumps are being constantly multiplied. 
These plants are being placed upon wells in the orchard or in the 
vicinity, or upon adjacent streams or ponds. Many new designs 
by California inventors are coming into use. It would require 
a volume to contain any adequate account of California's recent 
progress in these lines. Economic pumping is governed by so many 
considerations that no general statement would be conclusive in 
any specific case. Each orchardist must ascertain his own condi- 
tions and then confer with trustworthy manufacturers or their 
agents as to what will meet his requirements.* 



WATER MEASUREMENT 

The Miner's Inch. — Although the miner's inch, as commonly 
measured, is open to objection because of inaccuracy, from an 
engineer's point of view, it is so easily applied that it must remain 
a popular recourse. It consists in causing the water to flow 
through an opening, the capacity of which is known, and which is 
readily capable of adjustment to the flow in any case. A simple 
form of this device and its use is shown in the illustration, which 
represents a board 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and about 8 feet 
long. The opening is 1 inch wide and 50 inches long, and the dis- 
tance from the top of the board to the center of the opening is 
exactly 4 inches on the up-stream side. On the down-stream side 
the opening is beveled so that the hole presents sharp edges to the 
stream. A sliding board is hung upon the top of the first board, 
with a strip screwed along its upper edge, this sliding board being 
wide enough to cover the opening on the up-stream side. In the 



* Full details of the cost and flow from pumps drawing from various depths and 
operated by various motors are given in the publications of the Irrigation Investiga- 
tions to which reference has previously been made. 



THE MINERS' INCH 



211 



slot there is a closely-fitting block, made to slide on the beveled 
edges and fastened by a screw to the sliding board. It is obvious, 
then, that when the sliding board is moved backward or forward, 
by means of its end, which is extended for a handle, the block 
moves in the slot and determines the length of the opening. 

In operation the board is placed in the stream as shown in the 
figure, so as to dam the flow completely, and the sliding board is 
moved backward or forward until the water is all passing through 
the slot, the water being kept up to the top of the board, or 4 
inches above the center of the opening. The length of the opening 
measures the number of miner's inches of water flowing through. 




Measuring miner's inches in a small stream or ditch. 



If the flow is too great to pass through the opening 1 inch wide, 
the opening may be made wider, the water still to be kept 4 inches 
above the center of the opening. The laws of several States 
provide that in devices for measuring water for sale by the miner's 
inch the opening shall be 6 inches high and shall be provided with 
a slide as shown in the picture. The number of miner's inches 
then discharged is equal to the number of square inches in the 
opening. The assumption made that the discharge is proportional 
to the size of the opening is not true, but the error in measuring 
small quantities is not great enough to be taken into consideration. 
By converting the results of measurements in miner's inches to 
gallons, cubic feet, or some other familiar unit, it may be deter- 
mined how long it will take the stream to fill a reservoir or cover 
a given field with the necessary depth of water. This unit is readily 
convertible into cubic feet or gallons or acre-inches of water, 
according to the time the water flows. 

The following data will be helpful in computations : One 
miner's inch, as described above, equals 0.1496 gallons per second, 
8.976 gallons per minute, 538.56 gallons per hour, 12,925.44 gallons 



212 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



per day; 0.02 cubic foot per second, 1.2 cubic feet per minute, 72 
cubic feet per hour. One acre-inch of water (that is, 1 inch in 
depth over an acre of surface) equals 27,152 gallons, or 3,630 
cubic feet, and 1 miner's inch will supply this quantity in about 
50.4 hours. Thus a simple calculation shows that a little stream 
of 5 miner's inches will supply enough water to cover an acre 2.3 
inches deep in about 23 hours — a fair amount for one irrigation 
of soil of average character if it has not been allowed to become 
too dry before the application. In fact this is an average amount 
actually used for an irrigation of shallow-rooted plants like most 
field and garden crops. 

Weir Measurement. — The term "weir" is not always understood 
by those who use it. The term can properly be used only for 
structures designed to allow the water to flow over the crest with 
a considerable fall on the down-stream side. There are a large 




Weir box in operation showing post from which to measure depth of stream. 

number of forms of weirs, taking their names from the shape of 
the weir notch, or the form of crest. The triangular weir has a 
V-shaped notch. The rectangular weir has a horizontal crest with 
vertical sides. Both of these forms of weir are good, when used 
by the expert irrigator or engineer who understands the principles 
and factors which enter into their calculations. In order to avoid 
the variable factors which enter into the calculations for the flow 



WEIR MEASUREMENT 



213 



of water over weirs, Cipoletti invented the form of weir which 
has taken his name and which is in general use throughout the 
irrigated sections of the world. 

The Cipoletti Weir. — The Cipoletti weir has a thin horizontal 
crest, the sides of the weir notch sloping back from the vertical 
at an angle equal to one inch in horizontal for every four inches 
in vertical. This, for each additional inch in depth the weir notch 
widens on each side one-fourth of an inch, or a total addition of 
width of one-half inch. A weir having a length of crest of one 
foot, and designed to be eight inches in depth, will have a top 
width of notch of 16 inches. 

When the weir box is placed, care should be taken to have the 
bottom of the notch, or crest, level. An ordinary carpenter's spirit 
level may be used for this purpose. When the crest is horizontal, 
one end of the spirit level is placed on the center of the crest, 
and when level the other end will mark the point for the zero of 
the weir gauge. In rough work a nail may be driven part way 
into the side of the box, the top of the nail being level with the 
crest of the weir. A thin plate of brass is to be preferred -to a 
nail. In other cases gauges are inserted on the sides of the flumes 
and properly marked in tenths of feet or inches. At other times 
a post from 1 to 2 inches square is placed in the center of the box 
and several feet above the weir board. The top of this post is on 
a level with the crest. This is the method shown in the accompany- 
ing sketch. 

How to Measure Water Over Weirs. — The method to follow 
can best be shown by examples. Let us suppose that a farmer has 
made and placed a box similar to the one shown in the drawing, 
after turning in the water and allowing it some time to attain a 
uniform flow he proceeds to the weir box and with an ordinary 
rule measures the depth of wat-er flowing through the weir notch. 
Bear in mind that this measurement is not made at the weir board, 
but at the regular gauge, whether it be a nail, brass plate or post, 
as already described. We will assume that the depth as found by 
the rule is 3^^ inches. Now by referring to the table below he 
follows down the first column until 3^ is reached. The weir used 
is one foot, and under the column marked "1-foot weir" and oppo- 
site the figure 3^ already found he finds the cubic feet per minute 
or the gallons per minute flowing over a one-foot weir when the 
depth of water is 3^^ inches. The equivalent flow in gallons per 
minute for any given length of weir and depth of water over the 
crest was obtained from the accompanying table : 



214 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 
Discharge Over Cipoletti Weirs. 



Depth of "water 
on crest. 

1-foot weir. 



1%-foot weir. 



2 -foot weir. 



3 -foot weir. 



"2 "" ^ 

i- .S to 

o ■§ tH 

M U ft 

1 0.08 

IVs 0.10 

11/4 0.11 

1% 0.13 

11/2 0.15 

1% 0.17 

1% 0.19 

I'/s 0.21 

2 0.23 

21/8 0.25 

214 0.27 

2% 0.30 

2^ 0.32 

2% 0.34 

2% 0.37 

278 0.39 

3 0.42 

31/8 0.45 

31^ 0.47 

3% 0.50 

31^ 0.52 

3% 0.56 

3% 0.59 

378 0.62 

4 0.65 

i% 0.68 

4V4, 0.71 

4% 0.74 

41/^ 0.77 

4% 0.81 

4% 0.84 

47/8 0.87 

5 0.91 

5y8 0.94 

514 0.97 

53/8 1.01 

5V2 1.05 

5% 1.08 

5% 1.12 

578 1.15 

6 1.20 

61/s 

61/4 

6% 

61/2 

6% 

6% 

678 

7 



II 

OS 

36 
44 
51 
59 
67 
75 
84 
93 
103 
113 
123 
133 
144 
154 
166 
177 
189 
201 
213 
225 
238 
251 
264 
277 
291 
304 
319 
333 
347 
362 
376 
391 
406 
422 
437 
453 
469 
485 
501 
517 
534 



o 0) 

O ft 

0.12 
0.15 
0.17 
0.20 
0.22 
0.25 
0.28 
0.31 
0.34 
0.38 
0.41 
0.44 
0.48 
0.52 
0.55 
0.59 
0.63 
0.67 
0.71 
0.75 
0.80 
0.84 
0.88 
0.93 
0.97 
1.02 
1.07 
1.11 
1.16 
1.20 
1.26 
1.31 
1.36 
1.41 
1.46 
1.51 
1.57 
1.62 
1.68 
1.73 
1.79 






a 


ft 


is 


55 


0.16 


73 


65 


0.19 


87 


76 


0.23 


101 


88 


0.26 


117 


100 


0.30 


139 


113 


0.34 


150 


126 


0.38 


168 


140 


0.42 


187 


154 


0.46 


206 


169 


0.50 


225 


184 


0.55 


245 


199 


0.59 


266 


215 


0.64 


287 


231 


0.69 


309 


248 


0.74 


332 


262 


0.80 


355 


283 


0.84 


378 


301 


0.90 


402 


319 


0.95 


426 


338 


1.00 


451 


357 


1.06 


476 


376 


1.12 


502 


396 


1.18 


528 


416 


1.24 


554 


436 


1.30 


582 


456 


1.36 


609 


478 


1.42 


637 


499 


1.48 


665 


^21 


1.55 


694 


543 


1.61 


723 


564 


1.68 


753 


587 


1.74 


782 


609 


1.81 


813 


633 


1.88 


843 


656 


1.95 


874 


679 


2.02 


906 


703 


2.09 


938 


727 


2.16 


970 


752 


2.23 


1,002 


776 


2.31 


1,034 


801 


2.38 


1,069 






2.46 


1,102 






2.53 


1,136 






2.61 


1,170 






2.68 


1,205 






2.76 


1,240 






2.84 


1,275 






2.92 


1,310 






3.00 


1,346 



a a 


•5-1 
S 


0.24 


109 


0.29 


130 


0.34 


152 


0.39 


175 


0.45 


200 


0.50 


226 


0.56 


252 


0.62 


280 


0.68 


308 


0.75 


338 


0.82 


368 


0.89 


399 


0.96 


431 


1.03 


464 


1.11 


497 


1.18 


531 


1.26 


566 


1.34 


602 


1.42 


639 


1.51 


676 


1.59 


714 


1.68 


753 


1.76 


792 


1.85 


832 


1.94 


872 


2.04 


913 


2.13 


956 


2.22 


998 


2.32 


1,041 


2.42 


1,084 


2.52 


1,129 


2.62 


1,174 


2.72 


1,219 


2.82 


1,266 


2.92 


1,312 


3.03 


1,359 


3.13 


1,407 


3.24 


1,455 


3.35 


1,503 


3.46 


1,553 


3.57 


1,603 


3.68 


1,653 


3.80 


1,704 


3.91 


1,755 


4.03 


1,807 


4.14 


1,859 


4.26 


1,912 


4.38 


1,966 


4.50 


2,020 



SPECIAL POINTS FOR IRRIGATORS 215 



RANDOM SUGGESTIONS 

Without attempting- an impossible thing, to-wit, to furnish 
explicit directions for the practice of irrigation, for much of it 
every man must learn for himself by experience, a few suggestions 
may be noted, even though more important ones do not come to 
mind. 

Usually water should be prevented from actual contact with the 
trunk of the tree. Citrus trees are especially sensitive to such 
contact, and resent it by "gum disease," which was formerly far 
more prevalent in the State than now. Care must, therefore, be 
taken not to set trees which are to be irrigated, too low. It is 
better to raise them up a little and draw the earth up around them 
to prevent approach of the water, but this must not be overdone. 

If possible, the ditch should run on the shady side of the tree, 
because reflected sunshine from the water surface may burn the 
bark. 

In examining soil to ascertain dryness, one must dig deeply, 
for often an upper layer will be fairly moist, if well cultivated, 
while lower layers, where the feeding rootlets are, will be arid. 
Therefore, when trees or vines are suffering, dig far down in exam- 
ining the soil. 

In irrigating, thorough, deep soaking is necessary, and exam- 
ination must be made to see if an artificial hard-pan which prevents 
the descent of the water has been formed. 

Be careful not to continue irrigation too late in the season. It 
will prevent the proper dormancy of deciduous trees, and if more 
fall irrigation is given citrus trees than they need for perfecting 
the fruit, the trees will continue growing tender shoots until they 
are injured by severe frosts. On the other hand, it is often desir- 
able to give deciduous trees a draft of water after the fruit has 
been gathered, if the soil is so dry that the tree is likely to drop 
its leaves too soon, and wake from its dormancy with the first 
rains. Many times the fall blooming of deciduous trees, which is 
very undesirable, may be prevented by keeping them growing later 
in the summer by moderate irrigation. 

If trees or vines, in regions usually irrigated, are to be grown 
without irrigation, it is important that the grower be more than 
usually thorough and constant with his summer cultivation. In 
trying the non-irrigation experiment, one should, of course, begin 
with young trees which have not been irrigated, and not usually 
expect success by withdrawing the water from trees which have 
been accustomed to it, and have developed a root system accord- 
ingly. 



216 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



SUB-IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA 

The word "sub-irrigated" is freely used in California to describe 
land which is moistened below by underflow or seepage from 
streams or springs, or from open irrigation ditches, traversing 
higher levels. This land is sub-irrigated, it is' true, but there is 
no system about it, except the natural distribution of water, which 
is to seek its level. Some of our most productive lands are of this 
character, and where the soil and subsoil are fitted to the move- 
ment of this living water, and not apt to retain it up to the point 
of saturation, most satisfactory growth of deep-rooting field crops 
and of trees and vines are secured. But this is not sub-irrigation 
in the ordinary signification of the term. 

Several systems of sub-irrigation by subterranean pipes have 
been devised by California inventors, but none have passed beyond 
the experimental stage, and no considerable acreage has been con- 
tinuall}^ operated. 

DRAINAGE IN CALIFORNIA 

There was for a long time a very erroneous popular generaliza- 
tion that California soils do not need drainage ; that in a dry state 
the aim should be to retain the moisture, not to part with it. It 
is, of course, true that we have vast areas of naturally well-drained 
soil, upon which any money spent for drainage would be in great 
part thrown away, but we have, also, both in the valley and on the 
hillsides, localities where, by peculiar character and conformation 
of the subsoil, water is held in the soil until evaporated from the 
surface, and the result is a boggy, miry condition, which prevents 
proper winter cultivation, and at the same time injures the roots 
of the trees or vines. This defective cultivation, added to the 
puddling eft'ect of standing water, makes the soil dry out completely 
under the fervid sun of summer, and the result is that the wettest 
soil of the winter is the driest in the summer, and plants which 
are injured by soaking in winter suffer again from lack of moisture 
and sustenance in summer. Thus it is a fact, clearly proven by 
observation and experience, that thorough under-drainage removes 
surplus water in winter, and ministers to the retention of moisture 
in summer. More than this, a soil puddled by standing water can 
not present its contents in available form for plant nutrition, and 
besides, it loses the fertilizing effects of atmospheric currents, which 
pass through an open, well-dried soil. Wet land is cold and late 
in spring, and hot as a baked brick under the summer sun; it is 
no fiction of the imagination to say that well-drained land is 
warm in winter and cool in summer — that is, cool to a degree which 
favors quick and free root growth, and cool enough to escape the 
parching effect of deeply baked soil. 



DRAINAGli; AND IRRIGATION 



217 



These, and a host of similar considerations, which have made 
underdrainage popular in older countries, are of weight in Cali- 
fornia. Possibly, .as a rule, because of our vast area of deep, kind 
loams, the proportion of land needed drainage in this State is less 
than elsewhere, and yet there is a vast extent of country to be 
improved by tilling. There have been large losses of trees from 
planting upon soils defective in this respect. The evil has resulted 
from excessive rainfall and excessive irrigation, either direct or 



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Furrower at work in orange orchard of A. D. Bishop. 

by underflow from adjacent irrigations. In some places this latter 
movement of water has brought alkali to assist in the ruin of the 
trees and vines. The cure is drainage to sufiflcient depth and with 
good outlet for the drainage water. 

Information on the construction of under-drains is too available 
through other sources to call for its presentation in this connection. 

Drainage and Irrigation. — A special importance attaches to com- 
plete and systematic drainage in connection with irrigation. There 
is pressing need of such provision where the soil has become over- 
loaded by seepage water from irrigation ditches, and it is well that 
people in such situations are waking up to the need of coupling 
drainage outlets with their irrigation inlets. Another matter closely 



2][§ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

allied to this is the action of alkali on soils thus artificially water- 
soaked.. This has been made the subject of a special publication 
by Professor Hilgard, to which allusion has already been made 
in Chapter III. Drainage is plainly essential, both in individual 
farms and in districts where the water level is rising- too high, and 
the striking statements given below by Professor Hilgard should 
incite all to give immediate attention to the needs of vines and 
trees in this regard. 

The following summary of drainage needs, and the advantage 
ot providing drainage when needed, is made by Professor Hilgard : 

In the valleys and plains of the arid irrigation countries the soils are pre- 
dominantly of a light, sandy or silty nature, easily penetrated to great depths 
by water and air. With these the roots of plants also reach to such depths, 
drawing therefrom not only moisture but also plant food, which in these 
soils is, as a rule, very abundant. The plants of the arid region thus are 
enabled to utilize nearly as many feet of soil mass as in the regions of 
summer rains inches would be draAvn upon; and it is evident that this advan- 
tage, which postpones for a long time the need of fertilization, should not 
be lightly thrown away. Each farm in the arid region has several similar 
ones underground, which with proper management can be fully utilized.' 

But this presupposes that the water, air and roots can all penetrate 
under irrigated culture as they do in the natural condition. It means that 
the ground water level shall not be allowed to rise to such an extent as 
to prevent the penetration and healthy life of the roots in the depths of the 
soil mass. If by intentional or careless over-irrigation, or by leakage from 
the ditches, the water level is allowed to rise within a few feet of the sur- 
face, the wonderfully productive lands of the arid valleys are reduced to 
the same condition as are those of the humid countries: a shallow layer 
of surface soil, within which alone the roots can exercise their functions 
of plant nutrition. The natural result is that this layer soon becomes 
exhausted, and copious artificial fertilization is required to maintain prof- 
itable production. 

And even this is the most favorable case. When, in addition, the upward 
movement of the soil water carries with it the entire mass of salts of various 
kinds which exist in all arid soils, and brings them within reach of surface 
evaporation, these "alkali" salts impregnate the soil to such an extent as to 
render the cultivation of many crops unprofitable, or sometimes altogether 
impossible. 

Summarizing the advantages of systematic land draining it may be said 
that: 

1. It prevents the drowning out of the deeper roots of plants by the 
rise or fluctuations of the ground water, by which the vineyards and orchards 
are so frequently rendered unprofitable. 

2. It prevents, _ or at least limits definitely the shallowing of the soil 
caused by high-lying ground water, resulting in the need of early and 
copious fertilization, which would otherwise not have been called for in 
many years. The annual cost of such fertilization will soon exceed the first 
cost of drainage. 

3. Drainage does away definitely with the alkali evil. When drainage is 
established the land can easily be so handled as either to remove all the 
alkali, or to leave in the soil so much of it as may be rationally considered 
beneficial, on account of its usual content of valuable and highly available 
plant food. To prevent the waste of much of this soluble plant food, the 
use of gypsum is also valuable; but subsequent swamping of the land would 
cause a return of the black alkali unless drainage were provided for. 



CHAPTER XVI 

COMMERCIAL FRUIT VARIETIES 

In preparation for revision of this work and to serve also asso- 
ciations of nurserymen and fruit growers who requested specific 
information as to the relative standing of commercial varieties of 
different fruits in the various states which participate in the over- 
land fruit trade, the writer undertook a careful inquiry into the 
present standing of varieties of the fruits chiefly grown in Cali- 
fornia for commercial purposes. The objects in this inquiry were, 
first, to secure exact data which would be of business advantage to 
large propagators of fruit trees ; second, to make widely known 
the particular requirements of California production and trade for 
the information of originators of new varieties, which might pre- 
serve, with improvements, types which ministered to specific oppor- 
tunities and demands ; third, to enforce upon local planters the 
conviction that their clearest path toward satisfactory income lies 
in choosing varieties which have demonstrated two fundamental 
characters, viz : adaptation to the locality and to the uses of the 
fruit trade. 

It may surprise the casual reader to find that our production 
proceeds so largely upon old standard varieties and that the striking 
achievements of Mr. Burbank are not more prominent. Anyone, 
however, who is acquainted with commercial fruit growing knows 
that it is not possible to revolutionize an established and profitable 
industry in less than a decade by the substitution of new varieties 
for the old standards. It takes not less than half that period to 
determine whether the new variety is really trustworthy and suit- 
able, and it takes much longer to get a large acreage in bearing 
either by grafting or new plantings because people are slow and 
conservative in making changes. It is little more than thirteen 
years since Burbank distributed the first grafts of "Wickson," the 
first of his plums to make a deep impression upon the commercial 
fruit growing of California. 

Another reason why new varieties do not figure more largely 
in California fruit growing is the smallness of the amateur interest. 
There is, in fact, almost an absence of pure amateurs — enthusiastic, 
critical, discriminating, athirst for novelties. Even suburban plant- 
ers follow the lead of commercial orchardists and plant chiefly 
that which has shown adaptations to local growing conditions, 
and few are averse to making what they can by sale of small sur- 
pluses. The result is that California fruit growing is almost 

219 



220 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



wholly commercial in spirit, policy and point of view, which is 
perhaps only natural in a state where the fruit products reach an 
annual aggregate value of something like seventy millions of dollars. 
The effect is to concentrate attention upon varieties which have 
achieved fame for profit, and to repress amateur devotion and in- 
dulgencies. 

At the same time there is, and has always been, quite a disposi- 
tion toward trial of novelties among commercial growers, espe- 
cially manifested in search for specific characters which are seen 
to be desirable rather than desire of newness for its own sake, which 
is often a point of pride among amateurs. To this enterprising 
and discriminating search is due the prominence of some of the 
leading varieties, which are chance seedlings recognized as meeting 
special requirements and having grown great because they really 
did so. The California grower is, therefore, quite certain 
that he needs not varieties new throughout and of startling charac- 
ters, but improved varieties which hold the good points of the old 
and add other points. For instance, he calls for trees resistant to 
disease, for improvement of the fruit in beauty, flavor and keeping 
qualities; for varieties, similar in kind, which fill gaps in the ripen- 
ing season so that he can employ help continuously, and shippers 
and canners agree with him so that they can keep the cars moving 
and the cannery plants at work. The grower says he must be care- 
ful not to plant something dififerent from what is already growing 
and selling well in his region, and this is also the advice of the 
trade to him. He can not risk much on varieties of entirely differ- 
ent types, although most growers are always doing a little experi- 
menting. Nor should he undertake too many varieties, because a 
profitable orchard is not a pomological museum. There must be a 
large quantity of uniform fruit to make any district commercially 
prominent. 

For these reasons the number of varieties now planted is but a 
fraction of what it was a quarter of a century ago, and, stopping at 
this point, one might get the idea that the California grower was a 
monument of conservatism and lacking in enterprise and adventure. 
Subsequent chapters will, however, show that he has very definite 
ideas of what he wants that is new, and that he has problems 
enough to keep plant breeders busy for a century. This will be 
done for each fruit by citing in its chapter particularly desirable 
characters which California growers, shippers and canners have 
described in response to the wide inquiry upon which this statement 
rests. The writer was fortunate in securing 1,601 observations 
from men who have their livelihood and fortunes involved in profit- 
able growth and handling of California fruits, and what are given 
as specific requirements of new varieties in California are not vain 
imaginings, but deeply felt wants. 



THE MOST POPULAR FRUITS 



221 



It will be noted by the reader that the preference for certain 
varieties, which isem-bodied inthis statement, does not involve pomo- 
logical standards as a leading factor. The claim is distinctly not 
made that these varieties are chosen on the basis of quality, 
beauty, hardiness or health. In the case of nearly all the fruits, there 
are other varieties which might equal or even surpass them in 
one or more of these respects. The choice is made because they 
are most profitable to grow; not alone because they are good, but 
because they are good for something. This particular suitability 
or serviceability may involve pomological considerations and com- 
mercial and manufacturing considerations as well. The planter 
must use these lists in connection with what he may find about the 
varieties in subsequent chapters, without neglecting to confer also 
with older growers in the district in which he may plan to plant. 

Perhaps an intelligent use of the statement can be concretely 
suggested by briefly discussing the first group of varieties men- 
tioned — the apples most approved in California. First comes the 
yellow Newtown Pippin, and that means that most apples commer- 
cially grown are winter apples and this variety is, on the whole, 
the most profitable of them. But a planter in a hot interior valley 
should usually reject them for all winter apples are apt to be unsat- 
isfactory, and, if he plants apples at all, should choose early vari- 
eties like the Red and White Astracan, because they ripen early, 
thus escaping the highest heat and at the same time being ready 
for the early market. 

Simifar comments might be made upon other varieties. Some 
years ago the distribution of commercial fruit varieties was taken 
into account in a biological way because it was taken to be certain 
that the grower would select varieties which "did best" in his 
district. Enough has been said to emphasize the fact that the lists 
of fruits are not made of those who do best alone, but of those which 
sell to best advantage, and that has no biological significance what- 
ever. 

The varieties are arranged not according to ripening season but 
in the order in which the greatest number of growers consider 
them worth planting. 

Fruit varieties most popular in California : 

Apples. — Newtown Pippin, Bellflower, W. W. Pearmain, Gra- 
venstein. Red Astracan, R. I. Greening, E. Spitzenberg, W. Astra- 
can, Red June. 

Apricots. — Royal Blenheim, Moorpark, Hemskirk, Peach. New- 
castle, Tilton. 

Cherries. — Royal Ann, Black Tartarian, Black Republican, Rock- 
port, Bing, Chapman, Purple Guigne, May Duke, Centennial, Black 
Bigarreau, Lambert. 



222 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Peaches.— Muir, Phillips, Salway, Lovell, Early Crawford, 
Tuskena, Foster, Elberta, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susque- 
hanna, Nichols, Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Mary's 
Choice, Hales, Alexander, Heath. 

Pears, — Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, De Comize, 
Doyenne D'Ete, Clapp's Favorite, Glout Norceau, Barry, Comet. 

Plums. — Wickson, Hungarian, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Tragedy, 
Washington, Satsuma, Burbank, Jefferson, Climax, Grand Duke, 
Clyman. 

Prunes. — French, Imperial, Sugar, Giant, Robe de Sergeant, 
German, Silver, Splendor. 

Grapes. — Muscat, Tokay, Cornichon, Thompson, Emperor, 
Malaga, Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Black Morocco, Sweet Water, 
Verdal, Carignane, Black Prince, Alicante, Sultana. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE APPLE 

During the last decade notable progress has been made in apple 
growing in California. The old idea that our conditions did not 
favor excellence in the apple has given way to full assurance that 
in wisely selected elevations and exposures the very highest points 
of size, beauty, flavor, keeping and shipping qualities are secured. 
Even before the wonderfully satisfactory test of both northern 
and southern California apples at the New Orleans World's Fair, 
it was clear that the right variety grown in the right place yields 
an apple in California than which a better can not be grown any- 
where, and during the last five years California early apples have 
been in sharp request for shipment to all regions of the Northwest 
and British Columbia, and California winter apples have been sold 
at the highest prices east of the Rocky Mountains and in Europe. 
Shipments beyond State lines of above one thousand and seven 
hundred and forty-four car-loads in 1905 testify to these facts. 

Localities for Apples. — Speaking generally, it may be laid down 
that the great valleys of the interior are not well suited to the 
apple ; also, there are some situations which are much better than 
others. In the early regions of the Sacramento Valley and foot- 
hills, however, excellent early apples are profitably produced. In 
the great valley and lower foot-hill region of the State, the late 
apple usually lacks character and keeping quality. On the great 
plains the tree is liable to sunburn, or sun blight, as it is called. 
Some varieties, because of the character of their foliage, are less 
liable to this injury than others, and it is possible that this evil 
may be finally overcome by the selection of varieties with blight- 
proof foliage, as will be mentioned later. In the great valley, how- 
ever, on the rich river-bottom land of the Sacramento and the San 
Joaquin and its tributaries, the apple roots deeply, attains good size, 
bears good fruit, with fair keeping quality, while but a few miles 
away on the plains it is inferior. 

In the interior the region of adaptation to the apple lies at an 
elevation on the foot-hills on both the east and west rims of the 
great valley. Its limits are not well defined, but there are flour- 
ishing orchards at an elevation of about four thousand five hundred 
feet on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and from two 
thousand to three thousand five hundred feet is commonly regarded 
the best apple region of the mountains. The trees attain large 
size and bear heavily, and the fruit, of well-adapted varieties, is 

223 



224 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

large, crisp, juicy and has exceptional keeping qualities. On the 
Tule River in Tulare County, at an eleration of 4100 feet, eight- 
year-old Winesaps have borne 300 pounds. Yellow Newtown 
Pippins 250 pounds, and White Winter Pearmains 300 pounds 
per tree. At such elevations, however, there is constant danger 
of spring frost injury. 

Along the coast the apple succeeds well from end to end of 
the State, and very close to the ocean excellent fruit is produced 
on good soil. There is a certain advantage in elevation in the coast 
region as well as in the interior, but the advantage is not so marked 
nor is the required elevation so great. Coast valleys in the central 
and upper portion of the State, where the soil is suitable, produce 
most excellent apples, but even here the lower hillsides, with deep, 
well-drained soils, are, perhaps, preferable to the floors of the 
valley. Departing from immediate coasr. influences and approach- 
ing the interior, with its greater heat and aridity, the greater ele- 
vation becomes desirable. The apple, excepting the very early 
varieties, does not relish the forcing heat which brings such per- 
fection to the peach, but to insure late ripening and long keeping, 
with accompanying crispness, juciness, and flavor, it must have 
atmospheric surroundings which favor slower development. 

Localities for apple growing in southern California are to be 
chosen with much the same rules as in the upper parts of the 
State. As has already been said, valleys in which coast conditions 
largely predominate produce good apples, on suitable soils, but 
away from the coast, proper elevations must be sought, and they 
should be above the so-called thermal or frostless belts. Good 
apples are grown on low lands near the coast in Los Angeles and 
Orange Counties. Sixty miles inland, in San Bernardino County, 
winter apples fail in the valleys, but are most excellent at a suffi- 
cient elevation upon the slopes of the surrounding mountains or in 
elevated valleys like the Yucaipe Valley above Redlands, where 
a Rome Beauty of excellent quality was grown in 1903 to a weight 
of twenty-seven ounces and a circumference of fifteen inches, In 
the elevated interior of San Diego County, as in the Julian and 
Smith Mountain districts, excellent apples are produced in large 
quantities and profitably carried long distances. 

Second and Third-Crop Apples. — There is a peculiar behavior 
of the apple tree, most noticeable when winter temperature is mild- 
est, and that is blooming and fruiting out of season. In the case 
of early apples the second bloom may appear about the time the 
first fruit ripens and the third bloom when the second crop is half 
grown. Even such behavior may be followed by regular blooming 
the following spring. Second crops of apples are not of amount 
nor regularity enough to be of much economic importance, as the 
second crop of pears and grapes sometimes are. The third crop 



CONDITIONS FOR THE APPLE 225 

occasionally ripens. An instance is on record at Chino, San Ber- 
nardino County, where in 1903 a tree ripened its first crop in June, 
and its last fruit was picked on Christmas day following. Such 
behavior, of course, indicates conditions ill suited to the apple. 

Exposures for the Apple. — The choice of exposure for an apple 
orchard may almost be inferred from what has been said about 
localities. In regions with high summer temperature the apple 
will do best on cool, northerly slopes, and this exposure becomes 
doubly desirable when the location has high temperature with only 
moderate annual rainfall, or where the soil is not well adapted to 
the retention of moisture. With such prevailing conditions, the 
apple will be grateful for the cooler air and the greater moisture 
of the northerly slope. AVhere the temperature is moderately 
cool, and the rainfall adequate, the matter of exposure is of less 
account, and the grower can make the existence of the best soil 
the test of location of his orchard. At elevations on the sides of 
high ranges where late cold storms are liable to rush down from 
higher snow fields, protection from the usual course of such storms, 
or from the course of cold winds generally, must be sought ; and 
directly up the coast, especially in the northern part of the State, 
in certain places where the peach does not usually succeed even 
the apple needs protection, and the benefit of all heat available, 
and then a southerly or southeasterly exposure becomes desirable. 
The choice of exposure is thus seen to, be largely a local question 
and to be determined by a knowledge of local conditions. A new- 
comer in a region can best learn these conditions by conference 
with older residents, or by personal observation of older orchards. 

Soils for the Apple. — Experience with the apple in California 
confirms what has long been set forth as its choice of soils in older 
regions. If one avoids an extremely light, sandy soil on the one 
hand, and a very stiff clay or adobe on the other, he may plant 
apples on almost any soil which allows extension of the roots to 
a considerable depth without reaching standing water. The apple 
thrives in a moist soil, but it must be well drained, natural^ or 
otherwise. A soil which may be called best for the apple is a deep, 
rich, moist, calcareous loam, but the tree will thrive on coarser 
materials. The subsoil, whatever its nature, must be sound and 
open to the passage of moisture. The most unfavorable condition 
for the tree is a subsoil of clay which holds water. There is some 
difference in varieties as to choice of soil. The Yellow Bellfiower, 
for instance, will do well on a lighter soil than the Yellow New- 
town Pippin. 



226 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE 

The apple is chiefly propagated by root-grafting upon apple seed- 
ling roots either whole-roots or root pieces. Budding is also practised 
to a certain extent. For dwarf trees the Paradise stock is used. 
Repeated trials with working the apple on the pear, chiefly by top 
grafting, have secured growth of limited life but without fruiting. 

The resistance of certain roots to the woolly aphis has been 
fully demonstrated by local experience in the use of .the Northern 
Spy and Winter Majetin, chiefly the former. Seedlings of North- 
ern Spy can not be relied upon as resistant to the woolly aphis. 
It is necessary to get a root actually grown from the Northern 
Spy wood. The best way to get a start is to buy some Northern Spy 
trees from some reputable nurseryman, specifying that they shall 
be Northern Spy root and top. With these resistant roots and 
wood growth for scions or cuttings can be grown. Resistant trees 
are made by root grafting the scion of the variety which it is 
desired to propagate upon a piece of Northern Spy root and then 
being careful that the scion does not send out roots of its own, 
but is wholly dependent upon the Northern Spy root. It is cus- 
tomary with nurserymen selling resistant trees to save the root 
pieces which are removed in digging and packing for subsequent 
propagation. It is also possible to get a resistant tree by starting 
from the cutting of a Northern Spy. To facilitate the rooting of 
these cuttings a small piece of any kind of apple root is put in by 
side graft near the bottom of the cutting. This acts as a starter, 
but the cutting will also make roots of itself. At the end of the 
first year then the cuttings are taken up, the piece of root used 
as a starter is cleanly cut away and the rooted cutting replanted; 
henceforth it is dependent upon its own roots and is resistant. 
The variety desired is then grafted in a little way above the ground 
surface so that there will be no danger of its making its own roots. 
By either of these processes it is more troublesome and takes more 
time to produce a tree with a resistant root than in the ordinary 
way, and for that reason trees on resistant roots are sold at a higher 
price. This may be the reason why resistant trees are not yet 
largely used in this State. 

Other suggestions applicable to the growth of young apple trees 
are given in Chapters VIII and IX. 

DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE 

The apple is subject to various diseases and insect enemies 
which must be resolutely fought or they will render the trees un- 
profitable. Chief of the diseases are the "pear blight" and the 
apple scab, and the apple mildew. Of the insect enemies the codlin 
moth, the apple-leaf aphis, various leaf-eating caterpillars and 



PRUNING THE APPLE 227 

several scale insects must be kept in check and the latest approved 
means of reducing these troubles will be described in detail in later 
chapters. 

PLANTING AND CARE OF THE APPLE ORCHARD 

The chapters on planting, and pruning contain suggestions to 
which the reader is referred. Care should be taken to obtain trees 
with clean, healthy roots, not knotted and scarred by woolly aphis. 

Distance in Planting. — The distance between the trees is of the 
highest importance. ' All the old apple orchards are overcrowded. 
More recently trees have been set at greater distances, and such 
planting is now generally advised. There is some difference of 
opinion as to proper distance, but certainly twenty-five to thirty 
feet is near enough, and some of the best new orchards have been 
planted at forty feet, the ground being used for a time with other 
crops or planted with early bearing trees, for which the soil is 
suited, between them. 

Pruning the Apple. — The manner of shaping fruit trees 
described in the chapter on pruning succeeds admirably with the 
apple. Yearling trees are usually planted, and they are regularly 
pruned until proper form is secured. 

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, a leading apple grower of the Watsonville 
district, near the coast in central California, gives the following 
excellent outline of a simple and economical, yet successful, method 
for apple tree building under ordinary conditions : 

First Year : On planting cut the stem from 30 to 36 inches in 
height, with the terminal bud toward the southwest. In the 
spring, when growth begins, strip ofif all shoots from 'the ground 
up to about 20 inches. Above this point let all growth remain 
during the summer. If for any cause during early summer a bud 
does not start where wanted, a short transverse cut through the 
bark just above the bud will cause it to develop into a limb. 

Beginning of Second Year: Cut off all limbs except those 
selected to remain permanently. Two, three, four, and not more 
than five limbs should be allowed to remain, the number depend- 
ing on their position. It should be the aim to distribute them 
evenly on all sides, and to give all possible space between limbs 
up and down the trunk. This latter precaution is to give room 
for expansion of limbs in after years. Cut back the limbs that are 
to remain, taking off from one-third to one-half of the previous 
season's growth. If the tree is of a spreading habit, and it is de- 
sired to have it grow erect, cut to inner buds. If desired to spread 
the top cut to outer buds. 




c 
o 



228 



THINNING THE APPLE 229 

Beginning- of Third Year: Allow two or three lateral limbs to 
remain on each of the main branches. Top the tree again, taking 
off from one-third to one-half the previous year's growth. Con- 
tinue this method during the first four years ,at which time the 
tree should begin to bear, and if surrounding conditions are favor- 
able, it will prove strong, vigorous and capable of sustaining a 
heavy load of apples. The after treatment will consist mainly in 
keeping the top properly thinned. 

After coming into bearing there must be intelligent pruning 
according to the growth-habit of the variety. Some varieties, like 
the Yellow Bellfiower, resent heavy pruning after coming into bear- 
ing, and slow growers like the Yellow Newtown Pippin, do not 
need it. On the other hand varieties, like the Winesap and Smith's 
Cider, are apt to make long slim branches and bear at the ends. 
This can be corrected by cutting back to secure more short shoots 
which will bear better fruit. Some varieties, like the Jonathan, will 
make plenty of short spurs under this treatment while others like 
Rome Beauty and Rhode Island Greening are persistent tip-bearers, 
but can be gradually drawn in without reducing the crop too much. 
The grower must study his varieties not only with reference to 
this but in forming the tree, cutting to an inside bud all varieties 
which naturally take a horizontal direction, and cutting to an 
outside bud varieties which have a tendency to send up tall, straight 
shoots. By thus throwing the new growth upward in the first 
case, and outward in the second, one can shape each kind to greater 
symmetry and strength for fruit carrying, and bring up all spread- 
ing varieties to a form which admits near approach of the plow 
and cultivator. This manner of shaping the tree must continue 
as long as seems necessary to secure a tree which will come to 
bearing age shapely and strong, and within reach. 

Bearing trees should not be allowed to carry too many branches, 
and pruning will largely consist of thinning out surplus shoots and 
removing interference between branches. It is not desirable to 
shorten-in the apple as is done with the apricot and peach. 

Summer pruning to reduce wood growth and promote bearing 
is practiced to a limited extent in some districts upon varieties 
inclined to shy bearing. In regions of the most intense summer 
heat, less pruning is admissible than in the coast and elevated 
regions. It is necessary that the foliage be dense to protect the 
tree and the fruit from sunburn. Nor does the tree seem to relish 
cutting back. Slight thinning out if the tree becomes too brushy, 
seems to be the best treatment in some of the hot valleys. 

Thinning the Fruit. — One of the most important items in the 
handling of an apple orchard is the faithful thinning out of the 
fruit of all varieties which are prone to over-bear, and this work 
is now regularly provided for by the leading commercial growers. 



230 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Only one apple should grow at a place and spacing of four to six 
inches is commended. Although this work is tedious and expen- 
sive, it is profitable, because of the improved price which can be 
had for the larger fruit which will be secured, and it is desirable 
in the effects of thinning on the tree. It will be relieved from the 
exhaustion of overbearing, induced to yield annual crops, and often 
saved from breaking down with a too heavy burden. 

Cultivation and Irrigation. — All that has been urged in measures 
to secure adequate moisture supply has full force with the apple. 
Excepting the early varieties, it is a fruit with a long growing sea- 
son and therefore requires continuous moisture to secure size and 
quality. Most California apples are grown on deep, retentive 
soils in regions of large rainfall and if this is conserved by thor- 
ough cultivation, good fruit can be secured. It is doubtless true 
that apples in even such places in California would sometimes be 
improved by irrigation just as they are in interior and mountain 
districts. 

Fertilizers have been thus far but little used in California 
apple orchards but they are manifestly needed. 

There has arisen recently evidence of the unfinished character 
of the fruit in some districts because it has shown blemishes after 
picking and during shipment which can not be attributed to any 
parasitic encroachment. This is probably due to some unfavorable 
condition in the local climate or to some other stress upon the tree 
wdiich prevents it from doing perfect work. 

GATHERING AND STORING APPLES 

The disposition in this State, as elsewhere, is to allow the fruit 
to hang too long upon the tree before gathering. It was long ago 
demonstrated that an apple for long-keeping must be picked a 
little in advance of full maturity. As late fall weather in California 
is so delightful, there is more temptation to delay the picking than 
where the approach of winter admonishes the grower to get his 
fruit under cover. Picking apples for shipment should be done 
just when the seeds begin to blacken and when the fruit yields to 
pressure. If left on until fully ripe, and the seeds all black, the 
fruit is apt not to keep well. This rule applies to fall apples for 
shipment to distant markets, or for apples to be stored at home. 

Mr. H. G. Keesling of Edenvale, Santa Clara County, gives a 
sketch of his way of handling apples on a small scale : In picking 
apples we insist on just as careful handling as in picking other 
fruits, and we find that the picking pail made of tin or light gal- 
vanized iron, holding about twelve quarts, or nearly twenty pounds 
of apples, is the best vessel to pick in, and we use them right 
through the season for cherries, apricots, peaches and even prunes. 



STOREHOUSES FOR APPLES 231 

A pail of this size is not too heavy to handle even on high ladders, 
and it carries the fruit without bruising. Our plan is to pick and 
sort into boxes in the orchard. If a number of pickers are at work, 
then one or more men will do the sorting. As each picker fills, his 
pail, he carries it a short distance to the sorting station, taking an 
empty one and returning to his work. The apples are sorted out 
of the pails and very carefully examined. The perfect apples go 
into one box, seconds into another and culls into another. They 
are then loaded onto a truck or wagon with springs and hauled to 
the house. A good sorter will keep pails empty for several pick- 
ers, all of course depending on the crop, size of apples, etc. I put 
my winter apples in redwood boxes, which, when piled one on top 
of another, five or six high and close together, and covered with 
canvas or muslin, are in a condition to keep their flavor and juici- 
ness a long time. Storing apples in boxes saves a lot of work in 
handling if they are to be examined or sorted during the winter. 

Nearly all the ways of keeping winter apples have been tried 
in California. The main difficulty in keeping apples in good con- 
dition during the dry months of the autumn is the loss of moisture 
from the fruit by evaporation. This causes shriveling and operates 
against long keeping. It has been found by experience that apples 
keep perfectly until late in the spring by piling under the trees 
and covering with leaves, etc., allowing the rains to fall upon them. 
When dry north winds blow, the fruit should be sprinkled occa- 
sionally. They come out from the cover fresh, smooth, and 
plump, and for family use such rough storage will often answer 
a good purpose. For commercial storage, even on a small scale, 
however, good fruithouses are used. The requisites of such houses 
are an evenly cool temperature, moist air, and good ventilation, the 
-fruit being open to free access of the air. In the mountains where 
stone is abundant excellent apple houses are made of it, which 
resist temperature changes notably. 

Mr. Edward Berwick, of Monterey, apple grower of experience 
in the coast region, handles his fruit in this way : 

The apples are carefully hand-picked into baskets and at once trans- 
ferred to ordinary apple boxes — just put in loose, not packed tight as for 
shipping. These boxes are hauled to the fruit house with as little jar as 
possible. 

This fruit house is built of rough boards (fastened on a heavy frame) 
with inch-thick battens covering the cracks, and rustic-nailed outside the 
battens, thus leaving an inch air-space between the boards and the rustic. 
It is of two stories — the upper devoted to tools and stores, the lower used 
for fruit, and arranged with shelves accordingly. This lower story has 
only an earthen floor. One object of this is to give as lodgment for rats 
or mice, the other is to serve as a means of maintaining a cool, damp 
atmosphere. To this end it is kept well watered in apple-keeping season; 
and, to avoid mildew or mold, it is also liberally sprinkled with ground 
sulphur. By day doors and windows are mostly kept shut, by night open; 
this, of course, is to exclude the heat and allow free circulation of the cool 
night air. 



232 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

A rather more open house is used in the coast region of south- 
ern California, by Mr. T. W. Ward, of Carpinteria : 

It is a slat house made of strips 1x2^ inches, put on one inch apart. 
The roof is similarly constructed. There are two passages, on either side 
of which. are two shelves, one above the other, i. e., eight in all. The shelves 
are made of slats placed one-half inch apart, with sides a foot high. The 
apples are spread on these shelves a foot or more deep. The floor is made 
of slats, and there are bins on this also. The fruit must receive a thorough 
sprinkling weekly, unless sufficient rain falls. The slats are close enough 
to prevent birds doing damage, and the whole building is raised six inches 
from the ground. 

In the mountain regions arrangements must be made for frost 
exclusion, — a consideration which does not apply to the valley and 
coast. 

PICKING AND PACKING APPLES ON A LARGE SCALE 

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, a leading grower, and president of the 
Santa Cruz County horticultural commission, gives the best meth- 
ods in his district as follows : 

In the matter of picking, experience has evolved a number of rules 
which should be strictly adhered to: 

(1.) Do not pull the apple ofif the tree. By so doing, the stem may 
be detached from the apple, thus making a second grade of what otherwise 
would be choice. 

The proper method of plucking the apple is to grasp it with the full 
hand, not with the fingers only, and by a gentle twist and lateral movement 
detach it with the stem attached. Especially must finger pressure be avoided 
in the picking, as bruises thereby produced injure the value. 

(2.) The apple must never be dropped into a receptacle or from box 
to bo.x, but should be transferred as carefully as so many eggs. 

(3.) Under all circumstances use vehicles having springs in moving the 
fruit. 

Once within the packing-house the more perishable varieties should be 
handled immediately and forwarded to market, while the long-keeping 
varieties, especially those intended for export, should be held at least a 
month before sorting and packing. This latter precaution enables the 
packer to discover and eliminate all diseased and defective fruit — a thing 
that would be impossible if the fruit were packed at an early date after 
picking. 

Three grades or qualities are recognized in the "trade" — first, _ second 
and third. First grade includes only perfect fruit. Second grade includes 
the fruit having a trivial surface blemish or stem absent. The third or cull 
class includes all wormy, badly bruised or skin-broken apples. 

Though grading for size varies somewhat in different localities, in the 
Watsonville district, the leading apple-producing center of the West, there 
are but three sizes recognized. These are 35/^, 4, and 4^^ tier. The unit 
of size is the 4-tier, which comprises all apples running from 2^, to ZYa 
inches in diameter, and derives the name from the fact that when packed 
in the box there are four rows of four apples each, both vertically and hori- 
zontally across the end of the box. Apples in excess of 3^4 inches are 
classed as 3i/ tier size. The third size, or 4^-tier, includes those apples 
ranging between 2^4 and 25/^ inches in diameter. Both the S^^-tier and 
4^-tier are packed in the manner known as "diamond" pack or "pear" pack. 
Apples smaller than 4i/4 tier are thrown into the cull pile. The sorter 
ascertains the size by passing the apples through circular holes in a board. 



APPLIES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES 233 

n-,/^u ^("'X^^^tf .^'^^ Standard box is made of pine. Its measurements are 
y^ by 11 by 22 m., and it holds about 50 pounds of fruit. A modified box 
of extra thick material, reinforced by iron straps, is frequently used for 
export trade. Redwood boxes are used only for cheap grades of apples 
packed for the local market. 

After being sorted, the apples are passed to the packer, who, before 
placing them in the box, wraps each apple in a piece of paper prepared for 
the purpose. 

The apples must be so packed in the box as to permit the nailing firmly 
of the lid at each end, and at the same time allow a gradual swell of about 
three-fourths of an inch at the middle of both top and bottom. On account 
of the resultant shape of the boxes, they can be stacked up with safety 
only on their sides. 

The packed boxes after being neatly labeled, are next transferred to 
the iCars and stacked four or five tiers high. An air space of three or four 
feet is left between the top tier and the roof of the car, also the entire space 
between the doors is left vacant for the better circulation of air. The boxes, 
after being systematically placed in the car, are so braced with timbers as 
to, prevent any movement. The usual carload consists of about 650 boxes. 
Refrigerator fruit cars are employed mainly for apple shipment, but no ice 
is used. 

Summer and Fall Apples. — In some regions noted for early 
maturing of fruit, it is profitable to grow early apples, providing 
there are facilities for reaching profitable avenues of trade. Except 
to minister to some special local or distant trade which can be 
thus foreseen, it must be said that very early apples are hardly 
worth the attention of the commercial planter. These sorts are apt 
to come into direct contest with the magnificent peaches, grapes, 
and other summer and autumn fruits, and suflrer thereby. 

On the other hand the fall apples, chiefly the Yellow Bellflower 
and Gravenstein, are so good and profitable in regions where they 
bear well that they are among the varieties which constitute our 
chief commercial reliance. 

Winter Apples. — For large ventures in apple growing, in local- 
ities carefully chosen for especial adaptations, a few of the finest 
varieties of winter apples should generally be selected. It is the 
judgment of the most experienced apple growers, many of whom 
have old orchards including many varieties, that new plantations 
of winter apples should contain only about six sorts. Of these, 
in all parts of the State, two Avould be the Yellow Newtown Pippin 
and White Winter Pearmain; the other four would vary in differ- 
ent parts of the State, as can be learned from the table which will 
follow. 

Apples for Long Shipment. — There has been for years quite an 
important trade in shipment of California apples to various ports 
in the South Pacific Ocean, and recently there has been a sharp 
demand for California apples for shipment to the eastern states 
and England. The characteristic size, quality and keeping of the 
fruit, together with the size and style of package, have strongly 
commended the fruit. The center of this trade is Watsonville, 
in a coast valley, in the central part of the State. The two apples 



234 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



which. are most popular are the Yellow Bellflower and the Yellow 
Newtown Pippin. It is an interesting fact that these varieties by 
virtue of quality have overcome the popular fervor for a red apple. 

For the Interior Valleys. — In choosing varieties for the hot val- 
leys of the State those making a heavy leaf growth are to be pre- 
ferred. The Spitzenburg, for example, is a failure in the valleys of 
the interior, though satisfactory at points on the valley borders. 
From experience already had it seems likely that some of the Rus- 
sian varieties, with thick, large leaves, will prove best for such 
situations. The behayior of the Astracans, the Duchess of Olden- 
burg, and others of Russian origin, are illustrations of this fact. 
Other varieties have been on trial for several years, but no great 
distribution of them has yet been attained. 

SELECTION OF VARIETIES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION 

Selection of varieties of the same blooming season to secure 
whatever advantage there may be in cross-pollination to promote 
bearing arises chiefly with reference to White Winter Pearmain, 
which is sometimes very shy when grown alone. Association can 
be arranged with a number of our most popular varieties by con- 
sulting the following dates of blooming as prepared by Mr. Fred- 
erick Maskew based upon observations in the coast region of Los 
Angeles County. 

Blooming Season of our most popular varieties. 



VARIETIES. First bloom. 

White Winter Pearmain April 11 

Red Astracan April 1 7 

Bell Flower April 20 

Pall Pippin April 20 

Rhode Island Greening April 20 

Kentucky Red Streak April 20 

Early Harvest April 21 

Shockly April 27 

Fameuse April 27 

Ben Davis April 29 

Winesap May 5 

Yellow Transparent May 5 

None-such May 7 

Missouri Pijipin May 10 

Alexander May 15 

Smiths Cider May 15 

Transcendent Crab Mar. 30 

Hyslop Crab April 11 

Montreal Crab April 1 6 







General fall 


Full bl( 


3om. 


of bloom. 


April 


27 


May 5 


April 


30 


May 12 


April 


30 


May 16 


May 


5 


May 15 


May 


5 


May 15 


May 


10 


May 20 


May 


6 


May 12 


May 


15 


May 20 


May 


15 


May 22 


May 


15 


May 23 


May 


17 


•lune 1 


May 


16 


June 1 


May 


16 


.lune 1 


May 


20 


.June 1 


May 


25 


.June 1 


May 


25 


.June 6 


April 


7 


April 22 


April 


22 


April 30 


April 


24 


May 7 



This is a later range of bloom than will be found in many parts 
of the State, but the same relation may be expected everywhere. 




r-v^ ■^'5c.v!ii,u-- .^. , 



"<4- 




235 



236 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

VARIETIES OF APPLES CHIEFLY GROWN IN 
CALIFORNIA 

Of the hundreds of varieties tested in California comparatively 
few are now grown, as has already been suggested. Those named 
below have been reported by growers as succeeding in localities 
named with the description, or indicated in the table which will 
follow. The descriptions of the standard sorts are, in the main, 
condensed from Downing,* with local notes interpolated when 
thought necessary. The arrangement is, approximately in the 
order of ripening. 

Carolina Red June (Southern). — Medium size oval, irregular, inclined to 
conic; deep red covered with light bloom; stalk in small cavity; calyx closed; 
flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid; core rather large. 

Early Harvest (American). — Medium size, roundish; straw color with few 
faint white dots; stalk half to three-fourths inch, slender, set in moderate 
cavity ; calyx in shallow basin ; flesh very white, tender, crisp, pleasant. 

Early Strazvbcrry (New York). — Medium size, roundish, narrowing towards 
the eye ; skin smooth, deep red on yellow ground ; stalk one and a half inches, 
rather slender and uneven, in deep cavity; calyx small, in shallow basin; flesh 
white, tinged with red next the skin, tender, subacid, sprightly. 

Red Astracan (Russian). — Large roundish; skin deep red, save greenish 
yellow in the shade; pale white bloom; stalk short, and deeply inserted; calyx 
partially closed and set in slight basin; flesh white, juicy and crisp, pleasant 
acid ; tree hardy and vigorous, and an early bearer. The main reliance in 
California for an early apple. 

White Astracan (Russian). — Large, roundish; .skin smooth and nearly 
white, with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom; flesh white. 
Considerably grown in the Sacramento Valley and foot-hills for early phip- 
ment. Sometimes attains a weight of 29 ounces. Excellent in the Modesto 
district of the San Joaquin valley. 

Duchess of Oldenburg (Russian). — Large, roundish, oblate; yellow, streaked 
with red ; calyx large, nearly closed, set in wide, even hollow ; flesh juicy, 
subacid. 

Gravenstein (German). — Large, rather flattened; a little one-sicled or 
angular ; broadest at base ; stalk short, strong, deeply set ; calyx large, closed, 
in a large basin ; skin yellow, freely marked with light and deep red and 
orange ; flesh tender, crisp, highly flavored, aromatic ; a strong-growing and 
heavily-bearing tree ; a standard fall apple in this State. 

Red Bietigheiiner (German). — Large to very large, oblate, slightly conical, 
regular; smooth, whitish or yellowish white, shaded with light and dark red, 
and purplish crimson in the sun; stalk short, rather stout; calyx closed in 
large, deep, slightly corrugated basin; flesh white, firm, juicy, brisk subacid. 

Maiden's Blush (New Jersey). — Rather large, smooth, regular; yellow, 
with evenly shaded red cheek ; stalk short, in rather wide, deep hollow ; calyx 
closed in moderate depression ; flesh white, tender, sprightly. 

Fall Pippin. — Very large, roundish, a little flattened ; stalk three-fourths 
inch, projecting considerably beyond the fruit (which distinguishes it from 
the Holland Pippin) ; calyx open, not very large, rather deeply sunk in round, 
narrow basin ; skin smooth, yellowish green, becoming pure yellow ; brownish 
blush and few scattered dots ; flesh white, tender, mellow, rich, aromatic 

Alexander (Russian). — Very large, showy, conical, greenish yellow, streaked 
with red in shade, bright red in the sun ; calyx large, in deep basin ; stalk 



* "Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees of America." John Wiley & Sons, New 
York. 



VARIETIES OF APPLES 237 

slender, long, in deep cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, tender, and juicy. 
Tree vigorous but not always a good bearer. 

Gloria Mundi. — Very large, roundish, oblate; ribbed; greenish yellow A 
popular show apple on account of great size attained in this State. (See table.) 

Fameuse; syn. Snoiv Apple (Canada).— Medium size, roundish, somewhat 
flattened ; deep crimson, nearly concealing pale yellowish ground ; flesh snowy 
white, tender, juicy, slight perfume; stalk slender, one-half inch, in narrow 
funnel-shaped cavity; calyx small, in shallow, rather narrov/ basin; "tree 
vigorous, with dark wood ; one of the finest dessert fruits ; succeeds particu- 
larly well in the foot-hills." — John Bidzvell. 

King of Tompkins County. — Large, globular, angular, inclining to conic; 
yellowish, mostly shaded with red, striped and splashed with crimson ; stalk 
short and stout, in large, somewhat irregular cavity ; calyx small, closed ; flesh 
yellowish, rich juicy, vinous, aromatic; chiefly grown in mountain regions 

Rambo (Pennsylvania). — Medium to large, flat; yellowish white with pale 
yellow and red in the sun, with large, rough dots ; stalk long, rather slender, 
curved, deeply set ; calyx closed, in broad basin ; flesh greenish white. Reported 
a failure in some counties. 

Ben Davis. — Large, roundish, sides often unequal; light red and deep red 
on yellowish ground ; stalk medium, rather slender, in deep, narrow cavity ; 
calj'^x partially open. Commended as a market apple by the Southern Cali- 
fornia Nurserymen's Association. Grown in the upper Sacramento Valley, 
sometimes keeps until July i. 

Baldwin (Massachusetts). — Large, roundish, narrowing a little towards the 
eye ; deep bright red over a yellow ground ; few russet dots ; calyx closed and 
set in narrow basin; stalk one-half to three- fourths inch, rather slender, set 
in deep, even cavity; flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, subacid. Best in 
northern and elevated regions ; coloring varies greatly according to locality. 

Hoover (South Carolina). — Large, roundish, slightly oblique; yellowish, 
mostly overspread with red, with conspicuous light dots ; stalk rather long, in 
large cavity; calyx open in furrowed basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, crisp, acid. 

Rhode Island Greening. — Large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty regular; 
dark green, becoming yellowish green ; calyx small, woolly, closed, in shallow 
basin; stalk three- fourths inch, curved, thickest at the bottom; flesh yellow, 
fine grained, tender, crisp, juicy, aromatic, slightly acid; tree healthy and 
the variety widely popular. 

Vandevere ; syn. Newton Spitzenhiirg. — Medium size, oblate, slightly conic; 
fine yellow, washed with light red, striped and splashed with dark red and 
shaded with carmine in the sun; light bloom and peculiar gray specks; stalk 
short, in wide cavity ; calyx small, closed ; flesh yellow, rich, sprightly, vinous. 

Jonathan (New York). — Medium to large, roundish, conical or tapering 
to the eye ; light yellow nearly covered with red stripes and deep red in the 
sun ; stalk three- fourths of an inch, rather slender, in deep, regular cavity ; 
calyx in deep, broad basin; tender, juicy, rich, vinous; a great favorite in 
California ; specially commended as a market apple by Southern California 
Nurserymen's Association; keeps till midwinter. 

Winesap. — Medium size, roundish oblong ; dark red with traces of yellow 
in the shade ; stalk nearly an inch, slender, set in an irregular cavity ; calyx 
small, in regular basin ; flesh yellow, crisp, high, rich flavor ; largely grown ; 
tree a good bearer. 

Stayman Winesap. — An old improvement on the Winesap now becoming 
more prominent. Some growers reporting favorably on Winesap have this 
variety which is larger and better and the tree a stronger grower and more 
productive. Approved by Mr. Frank Femmons of Madera county. 

Ortley; syn. White Bellflower, etc. (New Jersey). — Large, oblong, greenish 
yellow, becoming fine yellow with slight blush ; stalk medium, slender, set in 
deep, acute cavity; calyx closed,' set in abrupt corrugated basin; flesh white, 
fine-grained, juicy, subacid. 



238 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Swaar (New York). — Large, roundish; golden yellow with numerous brown 
specks ; stalk slender, three- fourths inch, in very round cavity ; calyx small, 
greenish, set in shallow basin ; flesh yellowish, fine-grained ; very rich, aromatic 
flavor and spicy smell. 

Lflzw^r.— Large, roundish, oblate, dark red, covered with small dots; stalk 
medium, cavity deep, regular; calyx small, closed, in medium furrowed basin; 
flesh white, sprightly, aromatic ; a promising, late keeping variety. 

Yelloiv Bell flower (New Jersey). — Very large, oblong, irregular, tapering 
toward the eye; smooth; lemon color, with blush; stalk long and slender, in 
deep cavity; calyx closed, in rather narrow basin; flesh tender, juicy, crisp, 
with sprightly, subacid flavor ; keeps well into the winter ; tree a strong grower 
and healthy; one of the universal favorites in California. 

Romanite. — Small to medium, roundish, conical, truncated ; yellow, mostly 
covered with clear, handsome red ; indistinct light dots ; stalk slender ; calyx 
in an abrupt basin ; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, juicy, pleasant, subacid. 

Esopus Spitsenburg (New York). — Large, oblong, tapering roundly to 
the eye ; smooth, nearly covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct yel- 
lowish russet dots ; on shaded side, yellowish ground with streaks and broken 
stripes of red; stalk rather long, three-fourths inch, slender, projecting beyond 
the base and inserted in wide cavity ; calyx small and closed, in shallow basin ; 
flesh yellow, rather firm, crisp, juicy, with a delicious rich, brisk flavor. A 
largely grown variety ; tree a good, upright grower and healthy ; fruit keeps 
fairly. 

Hyde King. — Very large, glistening golden yellow with blush, very hand- 
some. Ripens October 15th in Humboldt county. Approved by A. F. Etter. 

Siiiitli's Cider (Pennsylvania). — Large, roundish, oblate conic; yellow, 
shaded and striped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots ; stalk slender, in 
deep, rather narrow cavity ; calyx closed, in broad, shallow basin ; flesh whitish, 
juicy, crisp, acid; tree a strong grower, and fruit keeps till midwinter. 

Rome Beauty (Ohio). — Large, roundish, approaching conic; yellow, shaded 
and striped with bright red, sprinkled with light dots ; stalk one inch, in large, 
deep cavity; calyx partially closed, in deep, narrow basin; flesh yellowish, 
juicy, sprightly; fruit keeps late. Particularly fine 'in the mountain valleys of 
Southern California. 

Missouri Pippin (Missouri).— Large, roundish oblate, slightly _ oblique, 
somewhat flattened at the ends; shaded, striped and splashed with light and 
dark red, often quite dark in the sun ; many large and small gray dots ; stalk 
short, small; cavity large, deep; calyx closed or half open, basin rather abrupt 
deep, slightly corrugated flesh whitish, rather coarse, moderately juicy, sub- 
acid. Quite largely planted, but losing favor for lack of keeping quality in 
coast valleys. 

Nickajack (North Carolina). — Large, roundish to roundish oblate, _ slightly 
conic, sometimes oblique ; yellowish, freely striped and splashed with red, 
many large dots ; stalk short, in large cavity ; calyx partly open ; flesh yellowish, 
fair quality; reported a shy bearer in high altitudes. 

Northern Spy (New York). — Large, roundish, oblate conical; pale yellow, 
purplish red stripes in the sun; stalk three- fourths inch, slender, in wide, deep 
cavity ; calyx small, closed ; flesh white, mild, pleasant ; highly esteemed in a 
few localities, but abandoned in others for shy bearing. 

White Winter Pearmain. — Large, roundish oblong conic, somewhat oblique ; 
pale yellow with slight blush, many minute brown dots ; stalk short in deep 
cavity; calyx nearly closed; flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy, very pleasant 
subacid, extra high flavor ; grown everywhere, and fruit keeps late ; tree a 
strong grower and healthy. 

Lady (French). — Small, regularly formed, flat; smooth and glossy, with 
brilliant red cheek' contrasting with lemon yellow ground ; flesh white, crisp, 
juicy and pleasant; chiefly used for ornamental purposes. 



CALIFORNIA SEEDLING APPLES 



239 



Black Ben Davis. — Resembles Ben Davis in tree and fruit, except that the 
latter is deeper colored, more symmetrical and of better quality. Highly praised 
by Mr. Frank Femmons, Madera county. 

Delicious. — Resembling Bellflower ; yellow, almost covered with dark red; 
very mild acid, quality good ; a late keeper. Also approved by Mr. Femmons. 

Arkansas Beauty (Arkansas).— Medium to large, oblong conical, yellow and 
red stripes, fine, juicy, very good, subacid. Approved in Southern California. 

Rawles Janet (Virginia). — Medium to large, oblate conic, yellowish, shaded 
with red and striped with crimson; stalk short and thick, in broad, open cavity; 
calyx partially open, in shallow basin; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, pleasant vinous 
flavor; tree healthy and prolific. 

Stark. — Large, roundish, inclined to conic ; sometimes elongated, sometimes 
oblique ; greenish yellow, nearly covered with dark red and sprinkled with 
light and brown dots ; stalk short, rather stout ; calyx closed ; flesh yellowish. 

Yellozv Neivtozvn Pippin. — Large, roundish, oblate and oblique, more or less 
flattened yellow with brownish red cheek ; stalk very short ; flesh firm, crisp, 
juicy, and with very rich, high flavor. Generally considered the best winter 
apple in California. 

CRAB APPLES. 

Hyslop. — Fruit large, growing in clusters ; roundish ovate ; dark rich red, 
covered with thick blue bloom ; stalk long, slender ; calyx closed ; flesh yellowish. 

Large Red Siberian. — Roundish ovate with large and prominent calyx ; pale 
red and yellow skin. 

Large Yellozv Siberian. — Fruit similar in size to foregoing, roundish oval, 
flattened at base and crown ; light clear yellow, inclining to amber, with warm 
cheek. 

Transcendant. — Medium to large, roundish oval, flattened at the ends, 
slightly but regularly ribbed; golden yellow, with rich, crimson cheek, or nearly 
covered with red ; delicate white bloom ; stalk long and slender, in open, deep 
cavity ; calyx closed ; flesh creamy yellow. 

Montreal Beauty. — Large, roundish, oblate ; bright yellow, mostly covered 
and shaded with red one of the most beautiful of crab apples. 

Whitney's Crab. — Large, handsome, greenish yellow, striped with crimson. 

CALIFORNIA SEEDLING APPLES 

Skinner's Seedling (Name approved by California State Horticultural Soci- 
ety, November, 1887). Syn. Skinner's Pippin. Santa Clara King. — Originated 
with Judge H. C. Skinner, of San Jose. Fruit large to very large ; form oblate, 
conic, slightly mixed ; color rich lemon yellow, faintly striped with bright red ; 
flesh yellowish white, very tender, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid; quality best. 
Season, September and October. 

Marshall's Red (Name approved by California State Horticultural Society, 
November, 1887). Syn. Red Bellflozver, Marshall's Seedling. — Originated with 
J. L. Marshall, Brown's Valley, near Napa. Fruited first about 1877 ; mtro- 
duced by Leonard Coates in 1884. The tree resembles Red June in habit of 
growth ; fruit large, same shape as Yellow Bellflower, but of same color as 
Red June; quality very good; flesh firm and fine- grained; aromatic, and slightly 
more acid than the Yellow Bellflower ; tree, a very heavy bearer, and the fruit 
ripens in October in the bay region. 

Magoon. — Large, roundish oblong, deep red shading to light red on yellow 
ground resembling Esopus Spitzenburg in form, flesh and flavor. Found in 
1893 on place formerly occupied by S. E. Magoon near Ahwahnee. Named 
by Frank Femmons. 

Cook's Seedling; syn. Sonoma S eedling.—Erought to notice by O. B. Shaw, 
of Sonoma, as a seedling raised by David CoOk from the seed of the Juneat- 
ing. Above medium size, pale yellow striped with red ; sharp acid flavor. 



240 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Not decidedly rich, but flavor full and acceptable. Excellent keeping quali- 
ties. Chiefly grown in Sonoma and Napa counties. 

Lawton. — Seedling on place of Mrs. F. H. Lawton, one-half mile north of 
Sebastopol, Sonoma county. More symmetrical than Belmont or Waxen. Very 
promising show variety. 

Tabular Showing of Adaptations. — In preparation for this edi- 
tion the writer undertook special inquiry to secure information 
from growers as to what their choice would be if they were to 
plant apples as explained in Chapter XVI. The result is a large 
shrinkage in the list of varieties which are now thought to be 
worth planting in the different parts of the State. 

An attempt is made to district the State for the apple, and for 
the other fruits which follow, in accordance with the scheme of 
climatic divisions described in Chapter I. This groups regions of 
nearest resemblance, and is more rational than any prescription 
according to county lines can be, for though some counties lie 
wholly in one climatic division, many more counties extend through 
two, and some even through three, such divisions. It is, therefore, 
a more promising proposition to encourage planters in any locality 
to study their climatic adaptations, not with regard to county lines 
but rather as related to the conditions of elevation, exposure to 
ocean influences and other factors which characterize natural belts, 
or areas, of similar horticultural fitness. The only instances in 
which these agencies are grouped geographically, is in constituting 
southern California a division by itself. This is a recognition of 
the fact that though in southern California coast and interior 
dififerences clearly exist, they are not so marked, until the devel- 
opment of the Colorado river region began, as they are in the upper 
portions of the State, and there is consequently less marked con- 
trast in suitability to various fruits. This concession to the south 
as sui generis also escapes, or answers instead of a third division 
of coast valleys, for the older fruit districts of southern California 
have a mollified or subdued coast climate, their region of strictly 
interior valley and foot-hill climate being restricted by the fact 
that practically almost all their cultivated area, until recently, lay 
south and west of their high mountains. It is an interesting fact 
that the California coast climates north and south show much 
greater contrasting conditions than do the interior valley regions, 
north and south, and southern California being so largely in the 
coast class could on this basis of wide coast variations claim a 
distinctive designation, though it could hardly be granted on the 
comparison of interior valley characters throughout the State. 
Just what effect the development of fruit growing in the great 
interior valley of southern California, which is irrigated from the 
Colorado river, will have upon the future re-classification of the 
horticultural divisions of the State can not now be determined for 
the planting of all kinds of fruit is but now beginning. 



APPLES FOR DIFFERENT REGIONS 



241 



Apple varieties approved by California growers. 



VARIETIES. 



Alexander , 

Arkansas Beauty 

Arkansas Black 

Baldwin 

Ben Davis 

Bietigheimer 

Black Ben Davis 

Cook's Seedling 

Delicious 

Early Harvest 

Early Strawberry 

Esopus Spitzenburg 

Fall Pippin 

Pameuse 

Gravenstein 

Gloria Mundi 

Hoover 

Jonathan 

Langford 

Lawver 

Maiden's Blush 

Marshall's Red 

Missouri Pippin 

Nickajack 

Northern Spy 

Oldenburg Duchess 

Ortley 

Rawles's Janet 

Red Astracan 

Red June 

Red Pearmain 

Rhode Island Greening. . . 

Romanite 

Rome Beauty 

Smith's Cider 

Skinner's Seedling 

Stark 

Stayman Winesap 

Swaar 

Tompkins King 

Vandevere 

Wagener 

Wealthy 

White Astracan 

White Winter Pearmain. 

Williams's Favorite 

Winesap 

Winter Banana 

Yellow Bellflower 

Yellow Newton Pippin... 

Yellow Transparent 

York Imperial 



Northern Central 
Coast Coast 

region. region. 



Interior Mountain 

valleys valleys Southern 

and and California 

foot-hills, plateau. 



* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
** Most highly commended. 




242 



• CHAPTER XVIII 

THE APRICOT 

California has nearly three million apricot trees which stand 
in the open air without protection of any kind and bear large, 
luscious fruit. That apricot trees can do this constitutes one of the 
unique features of California fruit growing and proclaims it differ- 
ent from fruit growing in other States, for, excepting a few locali- 
ties in other parts of the Pacific slope, California has a monopoly 
of commercial apricot growing, and nowhere else in the world does 
the fruit attain such commercial importance. Although the apri- 
cot has been grown here from the earliest days of the American 
occupation, and though since the opening of the export trade in 
canned and dried fruits, the apricot has gained in popularity, the 
planting of apricot orchards has not proceeded recently with great 
rapidity, although indications are that our distant patrons are only 
just beginning to recognize the desirability of the fruit, and their 
demands will make it well-nigh impossible for us to extend our 
production beyond profitable limits. The reason why the apricot 
has not kept pace with the advance of some other fruits in Cali- 
fornia is to be found in certain limitations of suitable area which 
will be mentioned presently. 

• Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend 
with, they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is gen- 
erally regarded as one of our healthiest and most vigorous, 
as it certainly is one of our most beautiful orchard trees. 
It is long-lived and attains great size. There are here and 
there groups of trees nearly half a century old which have a height 
of fifty feet; the main trunks life forest oaks, and the first branches 
or limbs twelve and fifteen inches through. The smaller limbs and 
foliage are at least fifty feet across ; a half dozen of them shade 
an acre of ground and they sometimes yield per tree a ton of fruit. 
But such trees do not meet orchard requirements and are only 
mentioned to show what the tree may do when it has its own way. 
The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer in 
California. In the interior and in the southern coast valleys it 
yields a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard, and 
from eight to fourteen tons to the acre was reached for several 
years in succession, in Judge Blackwood's old orchard of Royal 
apricots, in Alameda County. The trees, even of some varieties 
which are uncertain bearers, are large and vigorous growers, and 
have warranted the suggestion that there is a use for the apricot 

243 



244 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



tree for a windbreak for the protection of other trees. The trees 
may be planted near together in strong land and make a windbreak 
that will pay its way without regard to such fruit as it may inci- 
dentally produce. 

Apricots are chiefly marketed as a dried fruit and the operation 
of drying will be described in the chapter devoted to such pro- 
cesses. The amount used in canning is, in a year of full production, 
about one-quarter of that for drying, while the weight of fruit sold 
fresh to consumers, near and far, is about one-quarter of that used 
by the canners. The total product of apricots in 1905 was approx- 
imately 175,000,000 pounds, fresh weight. 

LOCALITIES FOR THE APRICOT 

In discussing localities for the apricot, reference is, of course, 
only made to its growth as a standard orchard tree without pro- 
tection of any kind. It shows even in California that it does not 
forget the conditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere, for late 
frosts in our upper coast counties render it, as a rule, unprofitable. 
Speaking broadly, the quarter of the State lying northward of the 
Bay of San Francisco and westward of the high ridge of the Coast 
Range is not suited for commercial apricot growing, though here 
and there are places where bearing may be regular and abundant 
enough to make trees satisfactory for home gardens. The moun- 
tain regions everywhere in the State above an elevation of about 
1200 feet are also to be excluded. The lowest lands of the great 
interior valleys, except here and there, where frosts are prevented 
by proximity of broad streams or by favoring air currents, are 
unsuited for apricots, and the bottoms of small valleys whence cold 
air can not find drainage outlet, are also treacherous. It is evident, 
then, that even in regions of general adaptation to the fruit, local 
discrimination must be exercised in selecting lands for apricots, 
and the occurrence of spring frosts, which are usually governed 
by topography, must be guarded against. This is not the same 
problem, which arises in the selection of land for citrus fruits, 
because apricots are not open to injury during December, January 
and February, and consequently they may be successfully grown 
in places where winter temperatures might injure the evergreen 
trees of the citrus family. Still, next to the almond, the apricot 
is most liable to frost injury of all our deciduous tree fruits, and 
commercial success depends largely upon the selection of a proper 
place for them. The occurrence of even light frosts during the 
blooming and setting, or soon after, may strip the tree of its bur- 
den of fruit without injury to even the softest tissues of twig and 
leaf; consequently, regular bearing of the apricot can not be 
expected where the temperature is apt to fall four or five degrees 
below freezing point during the months of March and April, even 



LOCATIONS FOR THE APRICOT 245 

though the duration of such temperature may be very brief. For 
this reason the area of California which is Avell suited to apricot 
growing is limited when compared with the great area of the State, 
though when counted by acres it is ample enough to supply all the 
fresh canned and dried apricots which the markets of the world 
can be expected to take at profitable figures. 

It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean 
influences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many observers 
that the apricot "points its best branches to the ocean, in the very 
teeth of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs and twigs 
bend up and endeavor to reach the same direction. This is patent 
in every tree, and in the long orchard rows is very striking." This 
is taken to signify the special liking of the tree for the vicinity of 
the coast. It is well enough to interpret it that way, providing one 
does not lose sight of the perfect success of the apricot in the in- 
terior as well. It is true that the fruit near the coast attains higher 
color, and the less rapid growth of the tree makes it somewhat 
easier to handle, but the earlier ripening in the interior, coupled 
with freedom from fog and constant sunshine for drying, are points 
of the highest industrial importance. The fact is that the apricot 
has a very wide range in California, and though the trees have 
been cut out at some points it has been chiefly because too frosty 
locations have been chosen or because some other fruit has seemed 
to be locally more desirable, for one reason or another. 

In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening directly 
to the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the cracking of the 
fruit on the sunny side. The alternation of sunshine and fog 
seems to have something to do with this, for in favorable years, 
when fogs are few, the fruit is sound. 

Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen 
with reference to the influence of topography, as laid down in 
Chapter I. In a general way, it may be said, in regions directly 
subject to coast influences, both in northern and southern Cali- 
fornia, the apricot is late. On the west side of the Sacramento 
Valley, on slightly elevated places, in small, hill-locked valleys, 
the earliest apricots have been grown for years. Protected situ- 
ations in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, on the eastern rim 
of both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, share in the pro- 
duction of the earliest ripening fruit. There is probably about a 
month's difference in the ripening of the same variety in the earliest 
interior situations and in the coast valleys of both northern and 
southern California. 

In the interior of southern California, in irrigated situations, on 
the west side of the Colorado River and in adjacent parts of Ari- 
zona, apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous valleys 
of interior northern California. 



246 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Recently a measure of success with the apricot has been 
attained in irrigated sections of eastern Washington, Idaho and 
Utah. If Avinter temperatures are low enough- to keep the tree 
dormant and yet not to injure fruit buds and frosts are absent after 
growth begins, success ought to be attainable. 

STOCKS AND SOILS FOR THE APRICOT 

Because of the success with which the apricot can be budded 
on various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to difTerent 
soils. Budded on the peach root it may be grown successfully on 
the light, warm, well-drained loams in which the peach delights. 
The peach root is, in fact, largely used for the apricot. It gives 
the tree quick growth and early fruiting, and the fact that the 
gopher does not like the peach root is a consideration with some 
planters. In growing stocks, pits of a strong-growing yellow peach 
are believed to yield more uniform and thrifty seedlings. 

For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its own 
root makes a magnificent tree. Apricot roots for budding are easily 
secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Sometimes, where 
cutting and drying are done in the orchard, "the ground the next 
spring will be almost covered with a volunteer crop of seedling 
apricots. These little plants, taken up and set out in nursery rows 
in March, are ready for budding in June or July. Large numbers 
of trees are sometimes secured in this way. In the upper San 
Joaquin Valley there are situations in which the apricot seems 
more productive on its own roots than on the peach, and in the 
moister parts of the San Fernando and tributary valleys in south- 
ern California the apricot root has recently advanced in popularity. 
It is, however, rather more sensitive to soil-drouth than the peach 
root. 

When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and heavier 
soils than have been described, or where a light soil is underlaid 
by a heavy, retentive subsoil, recourse should be had to the plum 
root. Only a non-suckering plum stock should be used. For this 
purpose the Myrobalan has been considerably used. Some growers 
complain that the root has a dwarfing effect on the tree, and object 
to its use. The manner of securing Myrobalan stocks has been 
described in the Chapter on propagation. 

Apricot on Almond. — The almond should as a rule be rejected 
as a stock for the apricot. Hundreds have tried it, and found that 
the scion never made a good union with the wood of the stock, 
but was knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore, easily broken 
off by the wind. It may grow well and sometimes gets to be two 
or three inches in diameter before it breaks off, thus wasting much 
time for the orchardist. Whole orchards worked in this way have 
been a loss and disappointment. 



PLANTING THE APRICOT 



247 



A few growers, however, approve the ahiiond and use it with 
the idea that it gives larger fruit. It has been claimed that the 
Royal apricot will take well on the almond seedling by root graft- 
ing, instead of budding, using the side graft. Cut off the top of the 
stock about four to six inches above ground, scrape away the dirt, 
bend the stock, and, with a sharp, thin knife, cut into the root to 
the center, making the cut perpendicular, so that the graft will 
be that way when inserted. The scion should be made wedge- 
shaped. After insertion, draw the loose earth around it, and the 
work is done until the graft has made a growth of eighteen to 
twenty-four inches. This is given as a record of experience, but 
still caution is urged against the use of the almond as stock for 
the apricot. 

The apricot may also be made to hold on the almond by double 
working, growing first as a shoot from a peach or plum bud and 
then working an apricot bud higher up on in the new shoot. 

In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for different 
soils, it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot seems 
to thrive better on a tolearbl}^ heavy soil, with enough sand to 
make it work easily, than on a very light soil. It does well on soil 
rather too heavy for the peach. It also enjoys moisture better 
and gives signs of distress unless its roots are fairly supplied all 
during the season, but it dislikes standing water and should not be 
planted on undrained situations. 

PLANTING THE APRICOT 

The apricot becomes a large tree in California, as has already 
been remarked, and it should be given plent}^ of room. Twenty- 
four feet each way is certainly a minimum distance for so large 
and long-lived a tree, and some orchards have been planted at 
thirty feet. If nearer planting is done it should be with reference 
to subsecjuent removal of part of the trees, which, however, is very 
seldom done. Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the 
trees to double the distance was proposed by H. D. Briggs, of 
Azuza, in this way : 

In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground, as 
an apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to 900 
square feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by setting 20x20 feet; 
then when nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making them forty 
feet in the row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course, taking them out diag- 
onally. The trees will very ciuickly tell the orchardist when they are too thick. 
When the outside rows have twice the fruit of those inside, it is quite evident 
that the time spent in pruning, etc., on half of the trees is worse than wasted. 
I have cut roots 40 feet from a nine-year-old tree. 

The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends 
upon giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one 
year's growth is all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some 



248 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



growers would rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old 
tree, and cases have been reported from dormant buds outgrowing 
yearling trees planted at the same time in the same orchard. But 
in growing from a dormant bud in the orchard care should be 
taken to develop a short trunk, with properly-spaced branches, by 
pinching the side shoots near the ground. Trees started from dor- 
mant bud and allowed to branch from the ground, have developed 
very unsatisfactory form, and have, in some situations, lost their 
lower branches by the wind. The tree should have a low head, 
but a short trunk seems to give a better tree, and more elasticity 
to the branches. 

PRUNING THE APRICOT 

Of all the California orchard trees, the apricot seems most in 
need of the constant attention of, the orchardist to give it proper 
shape and strength. It is a rampant grower, and in its zealous 
haste for size and fruitage it over-reaches itself and becomes the 
prey of specific gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees have 
been ruined by literally breaking to pieces with the weight of their 
fruit, and being torn by winds of only ordinary velocity. Thou- 
sands more have been rescued from such a fate by bolting the 
branches to each other. This excessive growth and consequent 
weakness of the apricot is greater in some parts of the State than 
in others, because of the difference in degree of forcing conditions, 
but everywhere the apricot needs watchfulness and timely aid in 
building up its strength. The general principles to be observed 
in securing branches strongly attached to a short trunk have 
already been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. 

There has been a very marked change during the last few years 
of the pruning of the apricot. Summer pruning, immediately after 
the fruit is picked, has become much more general, and winter 
pruning has proportionally decreased. The new practice is cer- 
tainly more rational than the old. Young trees are winter pruned 
to promote low branching and short, stout limbs ; bearing trees 
are summer pruned to promote fruit bearing and check wood 
growth — the excess of bearing shoots being removed by thinning 
during the winter. 

The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum ; also upon 
the new wood, like the peach. This fact has to be borne in mind 
when winter thinning of the new growth is undertaken. 

A very clear record of procedure is given by J. B. Neff, of Ana- 
heim, Orange County, who built up one of the best apricot orchards 
in the State as he describes. This orchard has been displaced to 
make way for English walnut trees which are more profitable in 
that district, but that was no fault of the pruning: 



PRUNING THE APRICOT 249 

Pruning the apricot requires some skill and considerable judgment, which 
can only be formed by experience and observation of the habits of the tree. 
Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and when 
planted should be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches 
from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously and frequently two 
or three shoots from one bud. These shoots should be thinned out, leaving 
not more than four or five, no two of which should come from one bud, nor 
be directly opposite. The first shoot should start twelve inches from the 
ground, the others in such a manner as to divide the space and mak.^, the 
branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central part of the tree. 

It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first yeor to 
remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading back 
should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree ; though if some of the limbs 
are making an overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the head 
balanced. 

The pruning of the second year should be done in January, as the tree 
will not be dormant until then, if it has been kept in a thrifty condition. The 
first year's growth should be cut back to within five to ten inches of the 
body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out, even if it necessitates form- 
ing a new head, as it is much better to lose some growth on a young tree than 
to take the risk of splitting down when the tree begins to bear fruit. 

When the shoots start for 'the second year's growth, take off all that come 
on the under side of the limbs and thin to one, two, or three, as may be 
needed to balance the tree, bearing in Uiind that an apricot tree inclines toward 
the coast breezes in this locality. 

The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in 
order to keep off suckers and all lateral growth that may start on the under 
side of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as nearly upright 
as possible. The remark on heading back holds good for the second year also. 

The trees will become dormant earlier the second year than they did the 
first, but should not be trimmed earlier than December, and a month later is 
preferable, as the ends of the limbs are not exposed to the drying winds 
so long before the sap begins to flow and consequently will heal over better. 
The second year's growth should now be cut back to within fifteen to twenty 
inches of the old wood, except the central stem, which may be left twenty- 
four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of laterals it may have 
thrown out. When the new shoots start they should again be thinned down 
to two or three on each limb, and all taken off that tend to turn down or 
out at right angles, but do not take off the fruit spurs. 

The trees will need to be gone over about three times before July to 
remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of the 
limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to . make an immense growth of 
downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood that is 
to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been properly 
irrigated and cultivated, the trees should now be large enough to begin ' to 
yield fruit. The object in trimming during the first two years and the first 
half of the third year has been to grow a vigorous upright tree, with strong 
limbs, capable of carrying a heavy load of large fruit, and to get the fruit as 
close to the bodj^ of the tree as possible. 

There will be a few specimens of the fruit the third year, and as soon as 
these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time, care 
being taken that the land shall have been allowed to become moderately dry 
so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the downward growth of the 
laterals has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about 
one-half of all this season's growth all over the tree, using the same judgment 
as before with reference to prevailing winds and symmetry of tree. If this 
is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth 
will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed. 

The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out 
any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer. 

After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not_ grow so 
vigorouslv, and the numerous prunings of the first three years will not be 



250 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



necessary, as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get 
so old that they need the old wood taken out. This can be more readily done 
without damage to the trees where from 24 to 30 limbs are grown, than in 
the old method of leaving only eight or ten large limbs. 

When it becomes necessary to take out old wood — as the best fruit grows 
on new wood — a few limbs can be taken out each year until a full top of new 
wood is again made. 

Winter Pruning. — The evident defect of many old apricot 
orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the thicket of 
brush near the ends of long bare limbs. Such trees need renewal 
of the top by vigorous winter pruning", which should preferably be 
done toward the close of the dormant season rather than early in 
the winter as formerly. Old and unprofitable trees have been 
reclaimed in this way. 

Winter pruning is still the regular method in some parts of 
the State where the conditions do not favor excessive growth of 
the tree and where summer pruning does not seem to be called for. 
The practice is to remove half or two-thirds of the new growth 
and thin out, by removing entirely enough new and old wood to 
prevent the tree from becoming thick and brushy. 



THINNING THE APRICOT 

All free-fruiting varieties of the apricot must be thinned to 
secure size acceptable to purchasers. It is the experience of the old- 
est growers that though thinning is an expensive operation, it is 
very profitable. When half the fruit is taken ofif in thinning, the 
remainder reaches as large aggregate weight as though the whole 
were allowed to mature and the thinned fruit is worth about twice 
as much per pound. Even if less weight is secured, and in most 
cases the purpose should be to get less weight, the tree is spared 
the exhaustion of overbearing and the owner escapes a year of little 
or no fruit. A discussion of this subject is given in a previous 
chapter. 

Where conditions are favorable, the tree will set more fruit than 
it can bring to full size, and for this reason thinning or spacing the 
fruit on the twigs by hand-picking, while the fruit is about the size 
of a pigeon's egg, is almost a universal practice among the best 
commercial growers. This is necessary to bring the individual fruits 
to the diameters required by canners or overland shippers, and 
which they scale in price according to size : Extras, 2^ inches ; 
No. 1, 2 inches; No. 2, Ij/^ inches. Fruit of less size is hard of sale 
unless the crop happens to be very small. It has also been found 
that thinning to regulate size is quite as important when the fruit 
is to be dried by the grower as when sold as fresh fruit. 



DISEASES OP THE APRICOT 



IRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT 



251 



Whether the apricot shall be irrigated or not is answered in 
the chapter on irrigation. In many locations, with proper pruning, 
thinning and cultivation, perfectly satisfactory fruit can be grown 
with the usual rainfall. In others a single winter irrigation will 
satisfy all the needs of the tree; in others a single irrigation just 
after fruit picking and summer pruning will carry the tree through. 
It is a fact, however, that as the trees advance in age some supple- 
ment to the average rainfall is often desirable and in dry years irri- 
gation is the saving of two crops. Some idea of the amount of 
water used can be had from the chapter on irrigation. The fol- 
lowing account by Mr. Nefif applies to his practice in Orange 
County, which is an average situation as to rainfall and atmospheric 
humidity, and is as good a general statement as could be made : 

If rains are copious, winter irrigation may be dispensed with during the 
first two or three years after planting the orchard, but when the trees reach 
the age for bearing fruit the rain water should be supplanted by irrigation 
water until the soil is thoroughly wet 5 feet deep, and in order to have this, 
at least 20 inches of water, including rainfall, must be put on the land. Three 
irrigations should be given the trees during the first summer, but it is not 
necessary to wet more than a strip 5 or 6 feet wide along the tree rows. The 
orchard should have three irrigations during the second summer and a strip 
12 feet wide should be watered, as the roots are reaching farther and the trees 
require a greater amount of water. The irrigation for the first two years 
should always be done before the trees show any want of water, so as to keep 
them growing vigorously. 

All the space between the trees should be watered the third year and after- 
ward ; but two irrigations will be sufficient for the summer. The best time for 
the summer irrigation of bearing apricot trees is when the fruit is about half 
grown, which is usually about the second or third week in May. 

If well watered at this time the fruit grows to its largest, and has time 
to ripen slowly as the ground gradually dries, until it has all the sugar which 
will go into the fruit. An orchard in full bearing that has been well watered 
in the winter should now have as much as full 100 inches of water for two 
hours on each acre (equal to four acre-inches). 

The second irrigation should be given as soon as passible after the summer 
pruning is done, in order to start the trees growing and develop the fruit buds 
for the next year. This will not require so much water as the irrigation in 
May, but ought to be as much as 100 inches of water for one hour on each acre. 

DISEASES OF THE APRICOT 

Though the apricot tree, as has been said, is regarded as one 
of the healthiest fruit trees, it is subject to some maladies. Trees 
perish from being set in unsuitable situations, and in these cases, 
if the evil be stagnant water in the soil, or penetration to alkaline 
subsoil, the root shows it. Sometimes, however, a branch or a 
whole tree withers and dies without apparent cause early in the 
summer, and while the root is still sound. The disease is evi- 
dently acute, but its cause is not known, nor a remedy proposed. 
It is an old trouble of the apricot, and not peculiar to California. 

The so-called "gum disease" sometimes causes injury to trees. 
The best treatment is to cut away the diseased part down to 



252 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

health}^ wood and cover the wound with common lead and oil 
paint, putting on sparing^ so as not to flow over healthy bark. 

Some years certain varieties in particular are blackened at the 
pit and rendered unsalable, but the trouble has not thus far 
proved serious generally, except with certain varieties which have 
generally gone out of use for that reason. 

The worst injury to tree and fruit is done by what is called 
the "shot-hole fungus" {coryncum), from its perforations of the 
leaves as though by a charge from a shotgun. It makes ugly scars 
on the fruit, which renders it unsalable. The same disease also 
affects the leaves of cherries and plums. Thorough use of the 
Bordeaux mixture described in a later chapter will prevent this 
trouble. 

A disease which is prevalent in some districts of southern Cali- 
fornia is called "black heart" ; a pith disease which sometimes does 
great injury. No treatment except that of pruning back to healthy 
wood has thus far been proposed. Root knot is also a serious 
trouble of the apricot as of several other trees. It will be con- 
sidered in the chapter devoted to diseases of fruit trees. 

Until recently the apricot has been generally free from scale 
insects, and it is not affected by those species which are worst 
on some other fruit trees, but recently it has been seriously infested 
in some places with black and brown scales, which will be con- 
sidered in a later chapter. 

The ripe apricot is sometimes seriously assailed by the diabrotica, 
a small green beetle, with twelve black spots upon its wing covers. 
Driving the insects away with smoke smudges has been used to 
some extent. Fortunately, the insect only occasionally occurs in 
large numbers. 

Varieties approved by California growers. 



VARIETIES. 

Bergetti 

Blenhiem 

Early Golden 

Early Moorpark 

Hemskirke 

Large Early 

Large Early Montgamet. 

Luizet 

Moorpark 

Newcastle 

Oullln's Early 

Peach 

Royal 

Routier'.s Peach 

Spark's Mammoth 

St. Ambroise 

Tilton 

Wiggin's Seedling. . .- 



Central 


Interior 






coast 


valley and 


Sou 


ithern 


valleys. 


foot-hills. 
** 


Calif 


ornia. 


** 


** 




** 




* 




** 
** 


** 


^i! 








* 




** 


* 


* 
* 






** 


* 
** 




* 


* 


* 








** 




* 


** 


** 
** 

* 
* 
* 




** 
* 



POPULAR KINDS OP APRICOTS 



VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT 



253 



Though nearly all standard varieties of the apricot have been 
introduced and planted in this State, comparatively few are found 
on the list of the orchard planters. Many local seedlings have 
been brought to notice and propagated to some extent but are less 
used now than twelve years ago, and the disposition is to restrict 
planting to a few old varieties. There is, however, still a need of 
new varieties combining size, quality and regular bearing. As 
with most other fruits, some varieties are found to succeed wher- 
ever conditions favor the fruit at all ; other varieties succeed in 
some regions and not in others. Our table of varieties for the 
different counties shows this fact, and an attempt will be made 
to make the showing more explicit by notes in connection with 
the mention of each variety. 

In the following statement the arrangement is approximately 
in the order of ripening, and the descriptions are from Downing, 
with additions and changes to meet local observation : 

VARIETIES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN 

Large Early. — A French variety ; fruit of medium size, rather oblong and 
compressed ; suture deep, skin slightly downy ; pale orange in the shade, fine 
bright orange with a few ruddy spots in the sun ; flesh separating readily from 
the stone, orange colored, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. This variety is espe- 
cially popular in the southern coast counties, but in most situations has proved 
an uncertain bearer. Ripens before Royal. 

Wiggins's Seedling. — Favored in Winter's district as best of early apricots ; 
good size, fine color, solid red cheek, good bearer; ten days earlier than Royal. 

Early Golden. — Origin- unknown ; small, roundish oval, with suture well 
marked and extending half way around ; skin smooth, pale orange ; flesh 
yellow, moderately juicy and sweet, with very good flavor; separates from the 
stone. This variety is reported favorably from some counties, but generally 
otherwise, and is not largely grown. Ripens before Royal. 

Royal. — A French variety, and at the present time the leading California 
apricot. Of large size (when well thinned out), free stone, fine color and 
flavor, good bearer, and fruit ripens evenly, when well grown ; a favorite with 
the canners and an excellent variety for dr3dng. Fruit roundish, large, oval, 
slightly compressed ; skin dull yellow with orange cheek, very faintly tinged 
with red, and a shallow suture; flesh pale orange, firm and juicy, with a rich 
vinous flavor. 

There is a variety somewhat grown in Sacramento and Solano counties, 
sometimes called "White Royal," which is not liked by canners, because of its 
lack of color and flavor. 

Large Early Montgainet. — Large, orange yellow, reddish on sunny side, firm. 

Oullin's Early. — Early form of Peach apricot, large size, delicious flavor. 
Ripens in Amador county four weeks earlier than Peach. 

Luiset. — Large, oval, distinct suture, one side higher than the other ; orange 
with crimson cheek ; flesh deep yellow, firm, rich. Especially approved in 
the upper San Joaquin. 

Blenheim or Shipley. — This is a valuable variety in this State and seems 
to surpass Downing's description both in vigor of tree and size of fruit. John 
Rock modifies Downing's description to suit California experience with this 
variety, as follows : "A very good variety, above medium, oval ; orange, with 



c)rA CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

a deep j-ellow, juicy, and tolerably rich flesh ; vigorous grower and regular, 
prolific hearer." This agrees perfectly with the behavior of the variety in 
the University orchard at Berkeley, where it is the best of twenty varieties. 
It is not reported so constant a bearer in some other parts of the State. Fruit 
runs a little larger than the Royal, and is usually better distril)uted on the 
tree, but it must be well thinned. This variety has been approved by canners. 
Ripens a little later than the Royal. 

Early Moorpark. — Very popular in southern California, where its identity 
has been long in dispute, and is not yet fully determined. The Early Moor- 
park of Thomas Hogg is as follows : Roundish, inclining to oval, with very 
deep suture on one side, extending from base to apex. Skin yellow, mottled, 
and dotted with crimson on the exposed side. Flesh in all respects resembling 
Moorpark. Stone oblong, with a covered channel along the back, which is 
pervious. Kernel bitter. Ripens three weeks earlier than Moorpark. 

St. Ainhroise. — Large, early, compressed, deep yellow, reddish on sunny 
side. Juicy, rich, and sugary, with firm flesh when grown in the interior ; apt 
to be coarse and to lack flavor near the coast. Condemned by canners for 
not processing well, and by dryers for loss of weight and for white color 
around the pit. It has served well as a shipping .variety. 

Bergetti. — An undetermined variety introduced by Mr. Bergetti and widely 
distributed imder his name in the San Joaquin. 

Hemskirke. — A fine English variety quite widely grown in California; ripens 
later than Royal, described by Downing as follows : "Fruit large, roundish, 
but considerably compressed or flattened on its sides ; skin orange, with red 
cheek; flesh bright orange, tender,, rather more juicy and sprightly than the 
Moorpark, with rich, luscious, plum-like flavor; stone not perforate, rather 
small, and kernel bitter." Esteemed in California because the tree is more 
hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit ripens evenly 
on both sides. Sometimes drops worse than other varieties. 

Peach. — A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches in 
diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on its sides, 
with a well-marked suture ; skin yellow in the shade, but deep orange mottled 
with brown on the sunny side ; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color, juicy, rich, 
and high flavored ; stone can be penetrated like Moorpark and has bitter 
kernel. This is a very successful sort in the warmer parts of the State espe- 
cially, and is a favorite in the Sacramento Valley. It ripens just ahead of 
the Moorpark. 

Moorpark. — A standard of excellence and an old variety which originated 
in England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in diameter 
each way; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other; skin 
orange in the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun, marked 
with numerous dark specks and dots ; flesh quite firm, bright orange, parting 
free from the stone, quite juicj', with a rich and luscious flavor; stone peculiarly 
perforated along the back, where a pin may be pushed through; kernel bitter. 
In California the Moorpark reaches grand size, but has the fault of ripening 
unevenly in most localities. The tree is tender and bears irregularly, which 
leads to its rejection by most planters, though some growers cling to it because 
of its size and quality and occasional grand crops. The San Jose districts 
lead in the production of this variety, and in some parts of the Santa Clara 
Valley the Moorpark seems to ripen uniformly. The same behavior is reported 
from localities in the upper San Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a 
more regular bearer. The variety is almost wholly rejected in Southern 
California. 

VARIETIES OF CALIFORNIA ORIGIN 

Newcastle. — Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer 
county, in 1881 ; size medium, round, with spherical pit ; freestone ; not quite 
as large as the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but more highly colored ; 
rather darker on the side to the sun. Early, regular and good bearer, a medium 
grower, being' more upright than the Royal. Its time of ripening has been 



CALIB'ORNIA APRICOT VARIETIES 



255 



reported as seventeen days earlier than the Early Golden and twenty-five days 
earlier than the Royal. 

Routier's Peach. — Originated with Hon. Joseph Routier, near Sacramento. 
Large, yellow in shade ; deep orange, mottled or splashed with red in the sun ; 
flesh juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market variety. Blooms a week 
later than peach. Very popular in Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. 

Sparks's Mammoth. — Popular in Ventura county. Largest size, even larger 
than Moorpark, pale yellow, very tender, juicy and sweet. Quiet widely dis- 
tributed in Southern California, but its bearing habit is in question. 

Tilton. — Chance seedling first noticed about 1885 on place of J. E. Tilton, 
near Hanford, Kings county, and distinguished by regular bearing. . Propa- 
gated and introduced by J. W. Bairstow of Hanford. Fruit large ; freestone ; 
symmetrical, ripening evenly and one week to ten days later than Royal. Tree 
vigorous and prolific. Widely planted recently and very promising. 

Late Englehardt. — Chance seedling originating at La Crescenta. Propa- 
gated and introduced by W. B. Thorne of Tropico. Large as Moorpark, ripen- 
ing evenly and twenty-eight days later than Royal. Claimed by Mr. Thorne 
to be a very late bloomer and thus escaping frosts which caught all other 
varieties at similar elevations. Planted chiefly in Los Angeles county. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE CHERRY 

Although the amount of cherries grown in this State is small 
as compared with the aggregate weights of some other fruits, the 
cherry, from the growth of the tree and the size and quality of 
the product, is entitled to rank as one of the grand fruits of Cali- 
fornia. The size of the California-grown cherry is a matter of 
pride with the residents, and a marvel to visitors. It is related 
that, many years ago, one of the most distinguished Eastern 
pomologists, who was taken to an Alameda County cherry orchard 
during picking-time, could not recognize the varieties, though 
he had himself propagated and shipped to California the very 
trees which were bearing the fruit, the size of which so far sur- 
passed all his mental standards. And quality is commensurate 
with size. Whatever disagreement there may be concerning the 
flavors of our other fruits as compared with Eastern, the richness 
and excellence of the California cherry have never been impeached. 
Recently the shipment of cherries to eastern markets, the extension 
of the canning interest, and the uprising of a demand for mara- 
schino-preserving have considerably enlarged the opportunity for 
profitable growth of the fruit. 

Famous Old Trees. — The longevity and productiveness of the 
cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries were 
planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State are still 
in full vigor. One of the famous trees is a Black Tartarian, which 
was brought from France by Dr. L. E. Miller, and planted by 
him in 1854, on land afterwards owned by Robert Hector, in 
Placer county, just below Rattlesnake Bar, on the American 
River, about eight hundred feet above sea-level. It is described 
as above seventy feet in height, the branches covering a space 
between seventy feet and seventy-five feet in diameter. The trunk 
branches about six feet above the ground, and at that point has 
a girth of over ten feet. A close record of its crop, kept for a num- 
ber of years when the tree was over thirty years of age, showed 
that it yielded from a ton to a ton and a half a year. Such trees 
are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has to be picked with 
the aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by men slung in 
swings from such ladders or the forks of the trees. At last reports 
there were about fifty of these large trees. Other large trees were 
to be seen near Woodside, San Mateo County, and near Oroville 
and Chico in Butte County, some of which have borne a ton of 

fruit in favorable seasons. 

256 



SORTS FOR THE CHERRY 257 

LOCALITIES FOR THE CHERRY 

In California there are many districts in which the cherry does 
not do well, and situations for the fruit must therefore be 
selected with discrimination. The chief product is made in the 
coast valleys adjacent to the Bay of San Francisco, including its 
extension east of the Coast range, known as Suisun bay, for in all 
these regions there is a modification of climate due to the influ- 
ence of ocean temperature and moisture. Away from these influ- 
ences the cherry also thrives on the alluvial bottoms of large 
rivers and their tributary creeks, both on the low lands of the 
valleys and the foothills, while on the broad valley plains and 
foothill slopes it is not usually satisfactory. In the mountain 
valleys cherries also thrive in suitable soils. In southern Cali- 
fornia at elevations where moisture is adequate and temperatures 
favor suitable winter dormancy of the trees, good cherries are 
profitably grown, while on the mesas and valleys below, where 
citrus fruits flourish, the cherry is an aggravation. 

How far atmospheric conditions which are beyond control 
influence the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be 
fully determined, but ample trial seems to demonstrate the unsat- 
isfactory character of the tree, manifested in small fruit and sun- 
burned foliage, on the plains of interior valleys, although the soil 
is kept moist enough. There is, however, still the chance of secur- 
ing varieties of the fruit which have been developed under condi- 
tions similar to those prevailing in the interior of California. The 
Russian cherries, which are largely grown in a region subject to 
high summer heat and dry air, will succeed in parts of California 
where the varieties originating in west Europe fail. Though this 
was suggested long ago, the effort has not yet been made. 

SOILS FOR THE CHERRY 

The cherry thrives in free, deep soil, in wh'ich water does not 
stand within about 15 feet from the surface. It delights in deep 
deposits from old water courses, and does not dislike a moderate 
amount of sand. A loam underlaid by a sandy subsoil is accept- 
able, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown its unfitness by 
the early failure of the trees, while those on deep loam near by 
have remained vigorous and profitable. On the foothills it thrives 
in the light, mellow soil and fails in the tight clay either in soil 
or subsoil, as it does in the adobe of lower lands ; and yet a clay 
loam of no great depth upon a clay subsoil may grow good trees 
if the clay be so disposed that surplus water from winter rains 
can escape and water is at hand to guard against summer drouth. 
But this is merely a suggestion for garden growth of the cherry. 
Commercial orchards should have a good depth of sufficiently re- 
tentive soil. The great cherry trees which we have mentioned. 



258 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



are growing right on the bank of the American River, where the 
soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over sixty feet deep, as 
proved by an old shaft once dug near the center of the orchard. 

But though the cherry dislikes a wet soil, it is particular about 
its water supply and insists upon enough, its requirements being 
greater than some other trees. During the dry years 1898 and 
1899, trees came into distress where they had never suffered before, 
and many large, valuable trees died. The only new condition 
they encountered was lack of soil moisture. It thus appears that 
while the cherry is undoubtedly injured by excess of water in the 
soil, it is still very exacting in its requirement of an adequate 
supply. If this can not be retained in the soil by cultivation, irri- 
gation must be resorted to. Thus the cherry growers in the famous 
Willows district, of San Jose, usually find it an advantage to give 
their trees an irrigation between the spring rains and the ripening 
of the fruit, and another irrigation after the fruit is gathered. 

Irregularity in the moisture supply also causes the cherry to 
bloom and fruit unseasonably. There has been bloom in October 
and ripe fruit in January, due to the fact that trees become dor- 
mant in late summer from soil-drouth. January cherries may be 
evidences of s.alubrity but they betoken poor horticulture. 

These facts show that the cherry must have enough water or 
it will not succeed. Sometimes young trees which have made a 
good summer growth die outright on leacliy soils which dry out 
before the fall rains begin. On the other hand, there must not 
be excessive moisture in the soil either from irrigation or by 
moisture. Cherry trees in southern California, planted with orange 
trees and given similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting 
on naturally moist land in low places has also failed, and observed 
facts some time ago led to the conclusion that at the south the 
cherry should be^ planted on well-drained land, Avhich could be 
irrigated (as the behavior of the tree indicated its need of water), 
rather than on naturally moist land, because of the likelihood of 
excessive moisture in such situations. More recent experience has 
declared mellow, well-drained soils of the higher lands well adapted 
to the cherry, and on such soils, when well cultivated, cherries 
have done well without irrigation at Pasadena, Pomona and else- 
where. The commercial cherry product of southern California 
comes, however, from mountain valleys and high plateaux — the 
chief regions being the Yucaipe Valley above Redlands and the 
Mesa Grande region in the interior of San Diego County. 

In California, as elsewhere, the Dukes and Morellos may suc- 
ceed where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke seems 
especially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other sorts fail 
utterly. 



SITUATIONS FOR THE CHERRY 



259 



Delayed Fruiting of Cherry Trees. — Though the cherry in fav- 
orable situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong, rich 
lands, will often have many years of disappointment from falling 
blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be making 
marvelous wood growth, and this apparently suppresses the fruit- 
ing function. Usually these trees will ultimately bear when their 
exuberant growth declines. They can be thrown into fruit sooner 
by allowing the trees to go uncultivated or by root pruning, 
digging a trench around about eight feet from the tree, and sever- 
ing the roots thus encountered, or by summer pruning of twig 
ends. Because of this overgrowth, growers give such soil to the 
apple or the pear rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non- 
bearing of the cherry is inexplicable. Though everything seems 
to be right, and the blooms are profuse, the fruit will not stick. 

Unquestionably lack of bearing is due with certain cherries to 
lack of association of different varieties and cross fertilization. 
There is warrant for the claim that keeping bees in the vicinity 
of cherry orchards has increased the bearing. But varieties must 
be provided which will act as cross-pollinizers. The Royal Ann 
needs this assista'nce and will bear better when associated with 
Black Tartarian, Black Bigarreau, Bing and probably others. In 
Oregon the Deacon and Lambert are said to be good pollinizers 
for Royal Ann. 



EXPOSURES FOR THE CHERRY 

Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to 
protection from frost injury and to early ripening of the fruit. The 
cherry blooms early ; though hardly as venturesome as the apricot 
and almond. In protected situations, guarded from cold north- 
erly winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the 
fruit advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about 
a month of good weather after the blossoming will ripen an early 
cherry, and ripe cherries have been shipped as early as march 31. 
The pioneer cherry growers of Vaca Valley went there from their 
old homes in Napa Valley, because they could gather and 
market cherries in their new locations before the same varieties 
were ripe in Napa. They chose places protected on the north and 
west by steep hills. The two things to secure are, apparently, 
protection from the sweep of cold winds and elevation above the 
deposits of cold air, which occurs in depressed places. 

In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there is 
no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties 
should not be planted except for family use. Early varieties are 
comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as they 



260 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



will reach the market alongside of better later sorts from earlier 
districts. The place for the cherry in the latter districts is on 
the most proper soil, according to the requirements which have 
been laid down, avoiding, however, so far as possible, wind-swept 
spots, and seeking amelioration of direct ocean influences by ele- 
vation or intervention of hills and windbreaks. 



PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY 

In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method of 
growing cherry seedlings. California cherry trees are almost ex- 
clusively propagated by budding on seedlings of the Black Maz- 
zard. The Mahaleb root is more hardy than the Mazzard and 
is less subject to injury by soil saturation during the winter sea- 
son. It is also more hardy against injury by summer drouth on 
shallow soils, which is one of the causes of die-back of the cherry 
tree in some parts of the State. While there may be particular 
places in which the Mahaleb is the better root, the conclusions of 
fifty years' experience in California cherry growing, which approve 
the Mazzard, are on the whole trustworthy. The Mazzard is a 
better grower and, where moisture conditions are fairly good, 
leaves little to be desired. The Mazzard, however, though credited 
with a dwarfing influence, does make a good sized tree under our 
conditions. Recently the Morello or sour cherry seedling, has 
found favor Avith some growers on the Sacramento River, although 
it is inhospitable to the buds of some varieties, like the Early 
Purple Greigne and Royal Ann, and double working has to be 
resorted to, which is expensive, both in outlay and time. The 
Black Tartarian takes well on the Morello and other varieties can 
be budded upon the Tartarian top growth. 

The planting of the cherry is covered by the general consid- 
erations already given for the planting of orchards. The distance 
which cherries should be set apart is a disputed point among 
planters. When planted twenty feet apart the trees have inter- 
laced their branches when sixteen years old, and the spaces between 
the rows have been covered in like colonnades. In the Haywards 
region the branches of twelve-year-old trees set twenty-eight 
feet apart have nearly reached each other, though continually cut 
back. Much depends in the matter of distance upon the manner 
of handling the trees. The trees can be grown much nearer 
together by continuous pruning than where the usual way of 
cutting back for the first few years and letting the tree take its 
natural growth after that, is followed. James E. Gedney, of Mesa 
Grande, San Diego County, practises close planting and cutting 
back which may work better on his upland than on deeper, moister 
soils. He says : 



PRUNING THE CHERRY 



261 



I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plan thus 
closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every year; this facilitates 
gathering the fruit very much. I prefer this way to setting the trees farther 
apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the former method 
I secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say nothing of the 
difference in gathering the fruit. Another advantage in keeping the trees 
headed low is that the wind does not affect them nearly as much as it does 
.itall trees. 

The best distances are 24 or 28 feet on such deep soils as have 
been described as best befitting the tree and though one may- 
fix his distance in planting according to the method of pruning 
he proposes to follow, he should remember that the cherry is 
naturally a large tree, and most old orchards are now overcrowded. 

As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one 
year's growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually 
get, then, a straight switch with well-developed buds all the way 
down, and the head can be formed as desired. . For garden plant- 
ing, older trees, properly pruned in the nursery, can be used to 
advantage. 

PRUNING THE CHERRY 

All our best growers agree in the advantage of a low head 
for the cherry, and all aim to have the trunks of young trees from 
the ground up to the limbs literally covered all around with 
leaves, which completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun. 
In planting, therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved — not 
to be grown into branches, but to be cut or pinched back when 
they have come out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to 
clothe the tree with a covering of its own foliage. These spurs 
not only furnish leaves to shade the trunk, but soon become fruit 
spurs and bear well. 

Low Heading with a Central Stem. — Some of the trees in the 
older orchards have been shaped by carrying up a leader with a 
regular system of side branches.' Head back at planting to two 
feet, pinching off the shoots below the head as stated, and allow- 
ing the shoots which form the head to grow larger, but they too 
are all to be pinched except the leader, which is allowed to grow 
as long as it pleases during the summer. During fall or winter 
pruning cut back the leader to about twelve or sixteen inches 
from its starting point and cut back the side branches to about 
six or eight inches. This is done year after year, cutting back 
and thinning out the side shoots, pinching the laterals, and allow- 
ing the leader to grow, never interfering with it until the winter 
pruning, and always letting it predominate over .the side shoots. 
By cutting short, wood is increased, but at the end of six years the 
tree goes into fruit very rapidly. As the tree increases in fruit it 
decreases in wood, and by the time it is ten or twelve years old 



262 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



there will be but little cutting to do, except to shorten in and thin 
out, and this requires some judgment and experience, to know 
where to cut, how to cut, and when to cut. To shorten in, never 
cut down to an old fruit spur. It is very difficult to get healthy- 
wood out of such; but whenever you can find last year's wood, 
there you can cut with safety anything that is less than one inch 
in diameter. 

This system of pruning must be accompanied by constant 
pinching during the summer-time. It should commence when 
the lower shoots are about six inches long, and be followed up 
closely all through the growing season. Those on the trunk 
should never get longer than eight or ten inches, under any cir- 
cumstances. After these are pinched, let the' trees rest ten or 
fifteen days, or until the branches in the top get a good start. 
Then pinch everything clean but the leader, in every main branch 
in the tree. The leader takes its own way all through the growing 
season, to prevent the effects of over-pinching or checking growth. 
If only the side shoots are kept back, the leader or head of the 
branches receives the current or flow of sap and maintains and 
carries on life and vitality in the tree. One object in pinching or 
spur pruning is to keep back surplus wood and create fruit spurs, 
throwing all the little twigs and branches into fruit, thereby utiliz- 
ing all the wood the tree can produce, not allowing it to grow at 
the tree's expense, and then have to cut it off. And another object 
in side-shoot pruning is to make the tree produce fine large cher- 
ries, all closely nestling around the big wood, and no long, slim 
branches hanging down like weeping willow. All such branches 
are always more or less sunburnt on the top and full of worms, 
one of the evils tending to the destruction of the tree. 

This method is commended to those who like a tree with a 
central leader, and are willing to give their orchards such constant 
attention. Unless pinching and consequent multiplication of shoots 
and foliage is faithfully followed such a tree is apt to become tall 
and rangy and to expose its bark all the way up to sunburn and 
borers. 

THE USUAL METHOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY 

As we have said, all cherry growers agree on low heading and 
on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon as they 
make a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in after treat- 
ment, the usual method is quite different from that we have 
described. It follows the vase or goblet form, which has been 
discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. Of the application 
of this method to the cherry, W. W. Smith, in an address before 
the State Horticultural Society, said : 



GKAFTING THE CHERRY 



263 



The cherry may be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit tree until 
it is about five years old ; after that the less pruning the better, except when 
necessary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry is more 
or less likely to produce gum (and this, decay), and should be avoided as much 
as possible. Cherry trees, however, should be trained with low heads not to 
exceed eighteen inches from the ground to the first branches ; fifteen inches 
is better. From three to five branches are enough to form the head of the 
tree; all others should be removed early. Three are better than five; two 
make a forked tree, which is likely to split down in after years. 

At the end of the first season we have a neat little tree with three to 
five branches. During the following winter these branches should be cut back 
to six to eight inches. The next season these should be allowed to produce 
two branches each (no more) ; then, at the end of the second season from 
planting out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches. The- following 
winter the new growth should be cut back again to from twelve to eighteen 
inches — according to the amount of growth the tree makes — the less the growth 
the more you cut. The same process should be repeated the following winter, 
treating each branch as an individual tree, until the tree is about five years 
old ; it takes at least five years to get the head of a cherry well established. 
After this, as some varieties will persist in throwing out branches near the 
ground, they should be removed during the summer. At this age the tree, 
if well grown, will have top enough to shade its body from the sun, and 
there is no further need of branches on the main trunk. 

It necessary to remove large branches it should then be done in midsummer, 
as that is the only season when the gum is not more or less exuded. We make 
it a rule to go over and dress up and prune our cherry orchard immediately 
after the crop is gathered — which in our part of the State is the last of May. 
All wounds made then by the removal of branches or otherwise will heal 
over the same season. All large wounds made at any time, however, should 
be coated over with paint. 

The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which 
probably nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped. 

In the cherry there should be the same observation as to cutting 
inside and outside buds as with other trees; in fact, the outside 
bud is the rule, because so many varieties make a directly upward 
growth. In removing limbs, cutting to the collar or swelling at 
the base of the limb is especially important, also the covering of 
the wound to prevent checking of the wood. 

GRAFTING OVER THE CHERRY 

Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has 
been a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal 
Ann ( a local name for Napoleon Bigarreau) has been the favorite. 
Other white sorts are also used for canning. This rise in favor 
of the white cherries has vastly increased their proportionate pro- 
duction as compared with the choice black and red varieties, which 
are still popular as table fruit. 

It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted over 
as easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In large 
trees as many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set, choosing 
the smaller limbs, even if you have to go pretty high in the tree. 
J. W. Cassidy, of Petaluma, used to advise grafting before the sap' 
begins to flow in the winter, or if not done then, wait until the 



204 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

buds are well advanced or the tree in bloom. He has trees which 
were over thirty years old before they were re-headed, and they 
made fine tops of new and healthy wood, and produced abundantly. 
The cherry is in fact a very easy tree to graft by the usual top- 
grafting methods. 

PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY 

The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the "gum," 
or overflow and condensation of sap, which, if left to itself, often 
induces" decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without attempting 
to explain the cause or causes of the unhealthy exudation, it may 
be said that prompt treatment of certain manifestations is desir- 
able, and in others the tree should be cleansed from the flow. 
Where the gum exudes on the side of trunk or limb, the thin 
outer bark should be pared away with a sharp knife, the accumu- 
lation of gum and sap removed, and the wound painted with lead 
and oil paint, or covered with grafting Avax. 

Gum in the crotch should be cleanly brushed out when soft- 
ened by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes sour and 
offensive and may injure the tree. In places where two or three 
limbs come out close together a kind of cup is formed, which will 
hold the gum from one year's end to another, and in its soft state, 
leaves, sticks, cherry pits, dust, and dirt will stick and hang and 
sometimes the mass becomes very foul. By this collection also, 
a nest is made for all manner of insects, bugs and worms. Another 
evil is letting the gum stay on is, if rain does not wash it off clean, 
it runs down the trunk of the tree and makes the bark look bad, 
and if it is very thick on the bark when it dries, it will contract 
and crack the bark crosswise, and is very injurious to the tree. 

Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting 
the young cherry as advocated in the chapter on pruning. 
Branches which emerge from the trunk at separate points and at 
wide angles seldom gum ; those which are crowded together or 
emerge at acute angles gum badly. In shaping young trees a 
gumming joint sometimes may be clearly cut out and those 
branches selected to remain which start out at a wider angle; in 
older trees there is nothing to do but keep the fork clean, as already 
described. 

There are cases reported in which gumming of old trees has 
been stopped by allowing the ground to lie uncultivated, weeds 
being cut down with the hoe. As a rule, however, the cherry thrives 
with good cultivation. 

Die-back of the Cherry, — The dying back of cherr}^ branches is 
more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause thereof 
is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble, as is the 
dying back of other fruit trees. This might have resulted from 



POPULAR CHERRIES 



265 



standing water in the winter in the soil, although the same condition 
may result from lack of sufficient moisture. Anything which causes 
destruction of the root hairs is apt to cause die-back and other 
forms of unthrift in the top. Early vegetative activity in the 
branch, followed by frost, seems also to occasion die-back in some 
cases. Fortunately, this can occur without injury to the rest of 
the tree, though it is sometimes and in some places destructive to 
the tree in the end. The only treatment is removal of the affected 
wood, and if this can be done during the growing season, as soon 
as signs of injury appear, it is all the better. 

The Gopher. — One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry 
is the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree, young 
or old. Traces of his presence should be constantly watched for, 
and killing methods described in a later chapter adopted. If a 
tree is seen to wilt suddenly, the probability is that a gopher has 
girdled it. Covering the wound sometimes saves the tree, but not 
usually. 

Insects injuring the cherry will be mentioned in a subsequent 
chapter. 

VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY 

Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State, and 
many have been abandoned from one cause or another. Those 
most frequently starred in our table are the survivors in public 
esteem. As our reports have come from those who grow for 
market, possibly some sorts are too tender for shipment, but excel- 
lent for family use, are omitted, but will be included in the descrip- 
tions which follow the table. The claims to value upon which a 
variety is judged are several: Extra earliness, an important con- 
sideration in early districts for shipment, and elsewhere for local 
sale or famliy use; firmness to withstand mechanical injury by 
jarring in transit and durability to escape decay during the long 
journey to distant markets; firmness and fixed color to stand pro- 
cessing in the cannery, and to prevent -coloring the juice; lateness 
to extend the cherry season. 

In classification of cherries it was originally considered 
that there were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the 
tender and half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigarreaux were 
the firm-fleshed ones; but these have been so intermingled and 
blended together by hybridization that no distinct line can now 
be drawn separating them. There is really but one class of these, 
whose main characteristic is the large, vigorous growth of the 
tree. The Duke and Morello cherries, also wanting a natural divis- 
ion, really constitute but one class. 



2QQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

In addition to the old standard varieties, a number of Pacific 
Coast seedlings have become popular, and others are very promis- 
ing. Special description of these seedlings will follow the standard 
sorts. 



Cherry varieties approved by California growers. 

Interior Mountain 

Upper Central valley valleys Southern 

VARIETY. Coast Coast and and California, 

region. region. foot-hills, plateaux. 

Advance * * * * 

Bing * ** ** * 

Bl'k Heart (B. Bigarreau) * 

Burr's Seedling.' ** * 

Centennial * * * * * 

Chapman * * 

Cleveland * 

Early Purple Guigne * ** ** •* * 

Elton * * 

Knight (Early) * 

Lambert * ** * • 

Lewelling (B. Republican) ** * ** * 

Mezel ** ** » 

Napoleon (Royal Ann) ** ** ♦* ** •• 

Nonpariel ...... ** 

Rockport ♦ * * 

Schmidt * * 

Spanish (Yellow) • 

Tartarian (Black) •* ** ** *« •• 

Paul • 

Wood (Governor) * * • * • 



Buttner's Yellow. 

Eugenie 

May Duke 

Morello 

Olivet 

Richmond 



* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
** Most highly commended. 



BIGARREAU AND HEARTS 



Early Lamaurie. — Fruit large, dark purple; flesh rich, juicy, excellent. 
Do\vning says a week earlier than Early Purple Guigne. Has proved the 
earliest cherry in the University collection at Berkeley, and in Vacaville dis- 
trict. Not fully tested as to regular bearing. 

Guigne Marbree. — "Fruit medium large, round, skin dark red; flesh purplish 
red, tender, juicy, delicate flavor."— (Jz//^^ "A better bearer than Early Purple 
Guigne."— fr. W. Smith. 

Baiimann's May (Early Black Guigne).— Rather small, deep rich red, 
becommg rather dark when fully ripe; tender, juicy, tolerably sweet and good. 

Early Purple Guigne. — Small to medium size; purple; tender, juicy, and 
sweet. This variety is considered the earliest good cherry. It is reported a 
shy bearer in some localities. 



CHEKRIES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 



267 



Belle d' Or leans. —Above medium size, roundish, heart-shaped; whitish yel- 
low, half covered with pale red, very juicy, sweet and excellent. 

Early White Heart. — Below medium size, rather heart-shaped, skin dull 
whitish yellow, tinged and speckled with pale red in the sun; flesh melting, 
sweet, and pleasant when fully ripe. 

White Tartarian. — Fruit of medium size, obtuse heart-shaped; skin pale 
yellow; stalk slender; flesh whitish yellow; half tender and very sweet. 

American Heart. — Fruit pretty large, heart-shaped, often nearly four-sided 
and irregular in outline borne in clusters; flesh half tender; skin strong and 
adhering to flesh. 

Werder's Early Black. — An early variety, moderately productive; tree 
vigorous, spreading; fruit large, black, tender, sweet and excellent. 

Knight's Early Black.— "'Large, black, tender, juicy, rich, and excellent; high 
flavor ; a shy bearer until the trees attain age." 

Rockport Biggareau. — Large; pale amber in the shade, light red in the sun; 
half tender, sweet and good; a very excellent and handsome cherry; good 
bearer ; highly esteemed for canning and shipping. 

Coe's Transparent. — Medium size pale amber, red and mottled next the 
sun; tender, sweet and fine. 

Cleveland Bigarreau. — A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and productive; 
large; clear red and yellow; juicy, sweet, and rich. 

Black Tartarixin. — Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black. Flesh 
purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably vigorous, 
erect,_ and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer; the best of the black 
cherries. 

Governor fFoorf.— Large ; light yellow shaded with bright red ; flesh nearly 
tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious; a vigorous grower and very productive. 

Elton. _ — Large, pointed; pale yellow, nearly covered with light red; juicy, 
with a rich and luscious flavor; one of the best. 

Black Eagle. — A very excellent English variety, ripening in June ; large 
size, deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich, high- 
flavored juice. 

American Amber. — Fruit medium sized, roundish, heart-shaped; skin thin, 
smooth, light amber ; delicately mottled and overspread with bright red ; flesh 
tender and juicy, but not high flavored. 

Yellow Spanish (Bigarreau Graffion). — Large; pale yellow, with red cheek 
in the sun ; flesh firm, juicy, and delicious ; one of the best, most beautiful, 
and popular of all light-colored cherries. 

Mezel, Monstreuese de (Great Bigarreau). — A foreign variety of the largest 
size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late. 

Pontiac. — Large; dark purplish red; half tender, juicy, and agreeable. 

Burr's Seedling. — Large ; yellow, shaded with red ; sweet and rich vigorous 
and great bearer apparently does better near the coast than in the interior. 

Oxheart. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped ; skin dark red ; flesh red, half 
tender, with a pleasant juice of second quality. 

Napoleon Bigarreau (Ro3'al Ann). — A magnificent cherry of the largest 
size ; pale yellow, becoming amber in shade, richly dotted and spotted with 
deep red, and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet. Tree 
a free grower and an enormous bearer. 

Tradescant's Blackkeart (Elkhorn, Black Bigarreau). — Large, heart-shaped; 
deep, glossy black; very solid and firm; dark purple, moderately juicy. 

Schmidt's Bigarreau. — "A new German variety lately introduced. The 
largest of all the Black Bigarreau cherries. Skin of a deep black color; flesh 
dark and very juicy, with a fine .flavor." — John Bidwell. 



268 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



DUKES AND MORELLOS 



Early Richmond (Kentish). — An early, red, acid cherry; valuable for cook- 
ing early in the season. 

Eugenie. — Medium large ; heart-shaped ; amber red ; good quality ; early. 

May Duke. — rAn old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red, juicy, 
subacid, rich. 

Arch Duke. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; bright red becoming dark; 
flesh light red, melting, juicy, rich, sub-acid flavor, very good; tree more 
upright and vigorous than May Duke. 

Late Duke. — Fruit large, flattened or obtuse, heart-shaped ; white, mottled 
with red, becoming rich dark red when ripe; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy; 
hangs long on the tree. 

Reine Hortense. — "It is one of the very largest of cherries ; a beautiful, 
glossy red, or deep pink, when fully ripe; heart-shaped; a universal bearer, 
and when hanging on the tree no fruit is more beautiful ; excellent for canning, 
but too soft and juicy for shipment." — W. W. Smith. 

English Morello. — Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich, acid, 
productive and late. 

Guigne Noir Luisantc (Black Spanish). — Fruit medium size, round, heart- 
shaped, glossy, blackish red; flesh reddish purple, tender, juicy, rich acid. 

Belle Magnifiqiie. — Fruit large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; skin a fine 
bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly sub-acid flavor; one of the best 
of its class ; a fine table fruit when fully ripe. 

Buttner's Yelloiv. — Medium, roundish ; clear yellow ; firm ; late. 

PACIFIC COAST SEEDLINGS 

Lewelling — Black Republican (Black Oregon). — "Seedling by Seth Lewell- 
ing, Milwaukee, Oregon, from seed planted in i860; first fruited in orchard in 
1864. Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet, with purple flesh ; 
ripens ten days after Black Tartarian." — James Shinn. "Large, late black 
cherry, good flavor, long keeper ; dries and ships well. Seems to succeed 
better on foot-hills than in the valley." — Robert Williamson. "Supposed to 
be a cross between Napoleon Bigarreau and Black Tartarian, having the solid 
flesh of the former and the color of the latter ; very late." — John Rock. T am 
of the opinion that the Black Republican and Lincoln came from the seed of 
the Black Eagle, but I have little idea of what variety they were crossed with." 
— Seth Lewelling. 

Blng. — Originated by Seth Lewelling, from seed of Black Republican. "Fruit 
large, dark brown or black, very fine ; late ; a good shipping variety." — Seth 
Lewelling. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy. Fruit ripens so that trees can 
be cleaned at one picking. 

Centennial. — A seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, raised by Mr. Henry Chap- 
man, in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876. Propa- 
gated and introduced by Leonard Coates, then of Napa, in 1885. It is larger 
than its parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and splashed 
with crimson on a pale yellow ground ; exceptionally sweet and of remarkable 
keeping quality. DescrilDed by Committee of American Pomological Society 
(1885) as follows: "Size large, slightly oblate; amber, with dark crimson 
marbling; flesh firm, sweet, and rich; quaHty best; condition excellent (after 
crossing continent by mail), showing its good shipping quahties." The Cen- 
tennial has been little planted recently, because of superiority of Royal Ann. 

California Advance. — Originated by W. H. Chapman, of Napa, propagated 
by Leonard Coates, then of Napa. Seedling of Early Purple Guigne, ripens 
one week earlier than its parent is larger and more obtuse, rounded form, and 
said to be a heavier bearer ; dark purple turning black ; rich and sweet, an-d 
of good degree of firmness. 



PACIFIC COAST CHERRIES 269 

The Oregon. — Seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, by H. W. Prettyman, of 
East Portland, and named by Oregon State Horticultural Society in 1888; 
described as larger than Napoleon ; firm ; dark red ; "fit to eat earlier than 
Napoleon, but coming to full maturity somewhat later." Introduced in 1888 
by W. S. Failing, Portland. 

Lambert. — Seedling of J. H. Lambert, Milwaukee, Oregon, 1887; presented 
to Oregon State Horticultural Society ; right to propagate sold to Oregon 
Nursery Co., 1896, and introduced by this company ; very large, roundish, 
heart-shaped ; stem long, slender, suture medium depth, acid ; smooth, glossy, 
dark purplish ; red flesh dark purplish red, firm flavor rich, quality good. Ripens 
ten days to two weeks after Black Tartarian. 

Andrews. — Fruited French seedling about 1896 by C. N. Andrews, Red- 
lands. Grown in mountain valley near Redlands. Apparently a fine shipping 
variety locally named after the grower. 

Paul. — Found by E. V. D. Paul of Ukiah on place purchased by him and 
previous owner could not account for its presence. Very large, black, mottled 
with dark red; late; remarkable shipping endurance demonstrated; diploma 
at Oregon Cherry Fair, 1907. Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates 
Co., Morgan Hill, California, 1908. 

Nonpareil. — Originated at Vaca Orchard; a fine, black, shipping cl.ierry, 
owned by Earl Fruit Company of Vacavillc and not distributed. 

Oregon has been prolific in originating new varieties of the 
cherry which are locally popular, but only a few have established 
themselves in California. 



CHAPTER XX 
THE PEACH 

Until the great prune planting passion of the decade ago the 
peach was the greatest deciduous fruit of California judged by the 
total number of trees in service. When the boom impression 
went forth that cured prunes could be put up in sacks more cheaply 
than wheat, people took to planting prune orchards by the sec- 
tion all through the wheat districts of the great valley, and boom 
planters even carried the trees where no one would think of plant- 
ing wheat — cutting up shallow-clay upland sheep pastures and 
even yucca sand wastes into prune-growing colonies. Under such 
planting propositions it is little wonder our nurseries sold prune 
trees for twice the normal prices and still could not fill the demand. 
Figures of prune trees in orchards rushed far beyond the peach 
figures. This overplanting of prunes naturally brought loss and 
disappointment, and interest turned again to peach planting, so 
that now the peach has secured notable advance beyond the prune, 
as shown by statistics in Chapter VI. During the last three years 
the peach has had the call, the nurseries have had difficulty in 
keeping up with the planting demand for certain varieties, which 
will be discussed later, and the peach has demonstrated its right 
to attain again its old position by possession of a greater acreage 
than is given to any other deciduous fruit. 

The peach was the first fruit to ripen on the improved trees 
brought here by the early American settlers, and the magnificence 
of the peach was consequently the key-note of the refrain which 
greeted the ears of the world in which the California gold cry was 
ringing early in the fifties. In fact, the gold from the mine and the 
gold from the tree were very nearly related. In old Colma, where 
gold was discovered, there was a peach tree which bore four hundred 
and fifty peaches in 1854, which sold for $3.00 each, or $1,350 for the 
crop of the one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand one 
hundred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these pioneer 
trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit. 

LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA 

There are many other facts to establish the claim that the 
peach tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared for 
with any devotion and skill, is not a short-lived tree in California. 
California is too young to mark the limits of its duration, but there 

270 



LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH 271 

are instances in the earliest-settled places in the State, where peach 
trees above fifty years old are still vigorous and productive. Some 
trees have, in fact, gone along in thrift until they have a bark below 
which looks like that of a forest tree, and a framework of main 
branches sound and stalwart throughout because they have never 
been allowed to sunburn until protected by their own roughness, 
and have never been pruned with an axe, and never lost a limb 
nor had a wound into which decay could penetrate and descend to 
the root. When the peach has a fair chance in its aerial parts and 
is in a soil which favors health of the roots, it shows itself to be 
very long lived in California. Where trees break to pieces 
and show decay wounds, they are in bad places and have suffered 
through natural stress or have been weakened by cultural errors. 

In favorable soils the peach is stronger and longer lived in 
the root than in the top, and sometimes triumphs over neglect by 
discarding its old, wind-broken, sun-burned and bark-bound 
branches, and forms a new head of its own. Such renewal is some- 
times very rapid. In the interior valley new shoots on a cut-back 
Muir tree have grown twelve feet in one season, with a thickness 
of one and one-half inches at the base. Such shoots will bear the 
following summer. It is through this disposition to renewal of 
good wood that the intelligent system of pruning which is now 
prevalent, ministers to the longevity as well as the profitability of 
the tree, aiding it to constantly renew its youth by restraining its 
exuberance, and at the same time furnishing it sound new wood 
on which to grow its fruits and foliage. But while these are facts, 
there is some difference of opinion as to the point at which an old 
tree becomes less valuable than a young one. Along the Sacra- 
mento River some count about a dozen good crops as the limit, and 
thus replace the trees when about fifteen years of age. This is a 
point which may vary greatly, according to local conditions. 

Early Productiveness. — Quite as important as the longevit}^ of 
the peach tree are the facts of its rapid growth and early produc- 
tiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and yield 
a profitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth it will 
mature some fruit the second summer in the orchard if the small 
shoots are not pruned away from the main branches, and during 
the third summer averages of forty to fifty pounds per tree have 
been secured from considerable acreages. These facts are stated 
to show what the peach of good variety may do in a good situation 
and soil and with the best of care. Of course they are not to be 
taken as average results, although greater than those given are 
sometimes attained. For example, on the rich, alluvial land near 
Visalia, an Admiral Dewey yearling tree planted in March, 1904, 
had in October, 1905, attained these dimensions: near the ground 
the trunk was eleven and three-quarter inches in circumference, 



272 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



branching two feet from the ground it had four main branches, 
each seven inches in circumference; height of tree, twelve feet; 
spread of branches, ten feet. It grew near a cracl<: in a cement 
ditch and so had all the moisture it could use, and being in a free, 
open soil was not impaired by standing water. 

As for possible productiveness of the peach, one Susquehanna 
tree in Kern county yielded twenty-seven forty-five pound picking- 
boxes — twelve hundred and fifty pounds in one crop — about four 
times as much as good trees may average. 



LOCALITIES FOR THE PEACH 

The peach has a wide range in California, and finds many dis- 
tricts suited to it in the several ways in which the trade delights 
in it. As compared with the apricot, the peach thrives in the 
sheltered valleys of the district north of the bay and west of the 
Coast range, in which the apricot is of little commercial moment; 
it yields those peerlessly beautiful "mountain peaches" from one 
to two thousand feet higher in the .Sierra foot-hills than the apri- 
cot can be trusted ; it goes everywhere in the lower foot-hills and 
over the great valleys that the apricot will go, and beyond it also, 
because it is less restless in the spring and escapes some frosts 
which injure apricots. Counted from trees in orchard the peach 
is about three times as great as the apricot. 

Nearly every county in California reports the possession of 
peach trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the sides, 
of the Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter killing, and 
lower still careful choice of situation has to be made to avoid 
frosts at blooming-time — the peach in such places being subjected 
to some dangers which beset it in the eastern States. Below 
these points, however, lies the great fruit belt of the foot-hills of 
the Sierra, where the peach is the chief fruit grown and its excel- 
lence is proverbial. Size, beauty, richness, delicacy of flavor and 
firmness, which endures carriage to the most distant markets, are 
all characteristics of the foot-hill peaches of California. 

In the great interior valleys of the Slate wherever proper con- 
dition of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also thrives, 
the tree making a wonderfully quick and large growth, and the 
fruit attaining great size. The San Joaquin Valley is the greatest 
peach district in the State. 

In the small valleys on the west of the great valley and on the 
eastern slopes of the Coast Range, there are also extensive areas 
suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern and western 
edges of the Sacramento Valley have produced the earliest fruit 
for a long series of years. Recently the contest for the earliest fruit 



SITUATIONS FOR THE PEACH 



273 



of these districts, with the foot-hill district on the east side of the 
Sacramento Valley and special locations jn the upper San Joaquin 
Valley, has been quite close. 

In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and the 
Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success is great- 
est, however, where good shelter is had from direct coast influences. 
Even where open to these influences, good peaches can be grown 
by choosing the smaller range of varieties, which do well by pro- 
tecting the trees from harsh winds, and by seeking elevation above 
depressed valleys, whose frosts are frequent. The occurrence of 
curl-leaf is a factor of much importance, which will be considered 
presently. In the coast counties north of the Russian River Valley 
the danger to the peach from unfavorable atmospheric conditions 
increases as one goes northward, and situations must be chosen 
with greater care. And yet by such exercise of care, peaches for 
home use and local markets can be successfully grown. 

South of San Francisco Bay the coast influences soften as you 
proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean, 
choosing, however, elevations, and avoiding broad, wind-swept 
areas and narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At 
considerable elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some 
varieties of peaches are notably excellent. The general rule holds 
with the peach, as with other fruits, that coast influences retard 
ripening and the season of the fruit is late. 

In some valleys and at elevations in southern California the 
peach is largely grown and high excellence attained while on the 
mesas and plains there is often too high a temperature which starts 
growth out of season and follows with dormancy and die-back 
when the tree ought to be most active. It has recently been demon- 
strated that varieties like Luken's Honey, descended from the 
Peen-to or flat peach of China, resist such irregularities better than 
the common sorts which are largely of Persian origin. 

SOILS AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH 

Though the suitability of soils for the peach can be somewhat 
extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be con- 
sidered presently, its range of soils is narrower than that of the 
apricot. The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams, rather 
dry than moist, but under all circumstances well drained. It will 
thrive on land with a considerable mixture of coarse sand or gravel, 
providing it contains also needed elements of fertility ; for the rapid 
growth and heavy fruitage of the peach requires abundant nutri- 
tion. Though it accepts coarse materials both in soil and subsoil, 
it relishes fine sediment and perhaps finds no more congenial loca- 
tion than in the deep, sandy loam, or sedimentary deposit border- 



274 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



ing the creek beds of our warm valleys, and will send its roots 
deep to secure long life and abundant fruitage. Such soils, whether 
along existing streams or deposited by prehistoric water courses, 
which have left their mark by the elevated ridges of rich sediment 
above the prevailing valley soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly 
drained, and delight the peach. Peaches are grown very success- 
fully on what is called hard-pan in some parts of Fresno County, 
providing the hard-pan is blasted as described in Chapter XL In 
these situations the hard-pan is near the surface and has a deep, 
free soil below it into which the roots can extend. 

At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which result 
from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them the peach 
thrives, both where' the soils themselves are deep and where the 
underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots and afford- 
ing escape for water. Success has been reported even when holes 
are partly excavated in these rotten rocks, as in the soft sand rock 
on the hills east of Vaca Valley, or in the broken chalk rock in 
what is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz. The superior 
warmth of such soils is supposed to minister to earlier ripening 
of the fruit, though the escape from cold air by elevation is no doubt 
a greater factor to the end. 

The influence of comparatively slight difference in elevation is 
very marked. E. R. Thurber, of Pleasant Valley, Solano County, 
had for many years a plat of peach trees on a natural terrace about 
seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his orchard. On 
the terrace peaches ripen and are disposed of before the same 
varieties ripen in the orchard below. 

As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided, so 
on the hills too great percolation from higher levels is undesirable. 
Of course natural defects of this kind can be corrected by ade- 
quate under-drainage. 

Still, though such be the general soil conditions best suited to 
the peach, the tree can be well grown for home use or local markets 
on somewhat heavier soil, providing there is good drainage, but 
drainage must be insisted upon, for thousands of trees have per- 
ished because planted in retentive soils without drainage. Alkaline 
soils which are usually rather heavy should, however, be avoided, 
as the peach, when grown on its own roots, seems to be of all 
fruits most sensitive to alkali. 

As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for other 
fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young foliage. 
Thus low places where cold air settles should be avoided, also low 
gulches through which cold drafts prevail. In frosty situations an 
incline away from the morning sun will often allow the trees to 
escape serious injury. 



GROWING PEACH TREES 275 

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING 

The chapter on propagation gives the general method of grow- 
ing and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, preference is 
usually given to those from strong-growing, yellow peaches, at 
least for working on the same colored fruit, while others use pits 
of the Morris White, others the Strawberry, and others still will 
use only pits from vigorous seedling trees. In this State the 
peach is usually so healthy and vigorous, and the "yellows ' not 
known, and less care may be needed in selecting pits; still, there 
is certainly nothing lost by making every effort for a good stock. 

The hard-shell sweet almond has long been used as a stock 
for the peach. It is held that it gives a hardier, stronger root, in 
dry soils especially. 

When it is desired to grow the peach on moister soil than suits 
its own roots, the St. Julian plum may be used. The Myrobalan 
has been used to some extent, but experience generally does not 
favor any plum stock for the peach and our largest propagators 
have abandoned its use. 

The so-called "peach-almond" has often been urged as a stock 
for the peach but has been little used, probably because the straight 
peach and straight almond are so satisfactory and available. It 
is a fruit having the pit of a peach but the pericarp of an almond, 
that is tough and tasteless and disposed to split like an almond 
hull. Early in the fifties a chance hybrid of this sort appeared in 
the nursery of W. B. West, of Stockton, and its pits were used for 
nursery seedlings which, when budded to the peach, produced good 
trees. Trees bearing the peach-almond are found here and there 
over the State. Mr. Burbank has produced a hybrid of the Wager 
peach and the Languedoc almond. 

Distance in Orchard. — Distance observed in planting peach 
orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different growers. 
Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant between apricot, 
pear, cherry, walnut, fig or other slower-growing, larger trees, the 
trees may be set comparatively close; that is, with the latter trees 
at thirty to forty feet, and alternate rows of peach planted quin- 
cunx, and to be removed at the end of ten to fifteen years. If the 
peach is to have the ground to itself, some planters plant at 
eighteen feet in equilateral triangles, or twenty to twenty-four 
feet on the squares, the present tendency with the peach, as with 
other trees, being to give more room than was the custom a few 
years ago. 

Age of Trees. — In planting peach orchards yearling trees are 
generally used, although far more are planted in dormant bud 
than of any other kind of fruit trees. The reason for this is easily 
found in the disposition of the peach to make a tree the first year 



276 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



from the bud. It springs almost at once into a full outfit of lat- 
erals. Some growers employ this disposition to form a head the 
first year in the nursery. When the bud has grown out eighteen 
inches, pinch it ofif at the top and force out laterals, which make 
long growth the same season. When planted out in orchard the 
following winter, cut back to ten or twelve inches. In this any 
one can get a yearling with the equivalent of a two-year-old head 
on it. The common practice is, however, to let the growth from 
the bud proceed as it chooses, and when the yearling is set in 
orchard, cut back to a single bud the laterals which are desired 
to form the head and removing others. If there is a dormant bud 
on the stem where a branch is desired and it is obstinate in not 
starting, a cross-cut through the baik just above it may concen- 
trate pressure and force it out. The development of form from a 
yearling branched in the nursery is illustrated in chapter on prun- 
ing. 

Recently preference has arisen for smaller trees for transplant- 
ing and, especially in the foot-hills, June buds, described in the 
chapter on propagation, are largely employed. 

Planting Dormant Buds. — The chapter oii planting describes 
the planting of yearling trees. The lifting of dormant buds from 
the home nursery and planting in orchard is described by P. W. 
Butler, of Placer County, as follows : 

Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchfird in 
early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the trees are 
in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nursery than can be planted 
in half a day. Plow a furrow on each side of the row, six inches from the 
trees, turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy spades or shovels, 
one on each side of the tree, can readily take it up without breaking many 
of the roots ; and what are so broken should be smoothly trimmed with a 
sharp knife. Place the trees in a tub of water, near where they are to be 
planted, and take from it only a few at a time. Put them in a basket or 
box and cover with wet sack, that they may be kept moist until placed in the 
ground. 

On planting, place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but 
do not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The 
stock should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife (and not with 
shears, as is often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the tree), 
when it will take in moisture and not heal readily. 

Some growers do not cut back the young seedling tree until 
growth has started out well on the dormant bud. 

Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both in 
planting and in their young life in the orchard. Lookout nmst 
be kept for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Success with 
dormant buds is notable. In good hands they commonly out- 
grow yearlings planted at the same time, and the percentage of 
loss from failure of the bud to start is very small. Of course 
every bud should be examined before planting, to see that it has 
a healthy color. 



SHAPING THE PEACH TREE 277 

In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy 
root only should be taken. During recent years there have been 
a good many young roots affected with knots or swellings from 
some obscure cause. Such trees should be burned. If planted, 
the knot sometimes grows to an enormous size and little or no top 
growth is made. 



PRUNING THE PEACH 

As has already been stated, the peach will carry a top of great 
fruiting longevity if the grower will do justice to the tree by reg- 
ular shortening of the growth and forcing out new wood, upon 
which alone fruit is found. Not only does regular pruning do this, 
but it promotes longevity and vigor in the framework of the tree 
upon which these bearing shoots come. Left unpruned, the peach 
soon becomes bark-bound, and the bark itself becomes hardened 
and brittle. Lower shoots are apt to give out, and the tree becomes 
an umbrella of foliage and fruit held aloft by bare branches bark- 
burned by the sun, invaded by borers, exuding gum, covered with 
moss and lichens — a picture of distress and unprofitability because 
its owner does not give the tree a chance to re-invigorate itself 
with large fresh leaves from the new wood which alone can carry 
them. 

As has been advised for other trees, the peach should be given 
a low head, developed as described in the chapter on pruning. In 
its after-treatment, it has been the universal experience that con- 
stant "heading in" is essential to the strength and health of the 
tree. This also has been considered in an earlier chapter. Illus- 
trations of the pertinence of these remarks are found in the practice 
of the most successful peach growers in all parts of the State. A 
few instances will be given : 

"The peach, fruiting only on wood of the previous year's growth, bears 
fruit farther away from the body of the tree each year, and the small shoots 
of from one-eighth to three-sixteenths in diameter begin to decline when 
the fruit is removed. To have healthy growth, all of these small branches 
must be removed the first winter following their fruiting, when there is 
a greater tendency to form small new growths, which may fruit the following 
season. In the peach, it will seldom be found necessary to remove any 
interior branches, except suckers, until they have produced a crop, when 
they will begin to decline and should be removed. 

"I would certainly not cut peach trees back less than one-half of the new 
growth in the winter pruning, and our trees are getting too large for their 
age even with that amount of pruning. This has suggested, in other localities, 
summer pruning or shortening in, with success in some places. So far my 
own experience is favorable. It will be noticed on trees kept growing rap- 
idly that the fruit buds are near the ends of the shoots, and it seems to take 
away too many of these buds to cut back one-half in the winter pruning, 
but by cutting back about one-half the new growth in August, fruit buds 
are developed lower down, and where they would not be developed without 
tlie summer pruning." — H. Culbertson, El Cajon San Diego County. 








278 



THINNING PEACHES 279 

"Prune the peach every year, cutting back and thinning out the center, 
using great care not to cut out too many of the little fruit shoots of new 
wood growing on the main branches, but removing the slender branches of 
the old wood, leaving as many branches of the new growth as the tree will 
support. In this case judgment must be used as to what the tree will 
support. The soil may be wet or dry, rich or poor, the grower must be the 
judge. To grow small fruit, prune lightly; to grow large fruit, prune with 
care and judgment. To get this judgment you must have some practical 
experience. I prefer doing the work when the sap begins moving in the 
spring of the year. All cuts heal over better then and the pruner can see 
how the buds are setting and use his own judgment as to how much wood 
he wants to cut out." — R. C. Kells, Yuba City, Sutter County. 

"Cutting back the peach must be more severe, as the growth of the new 
wood diminishes. Not more than five or six fruit buds should be left on 
a shoot, and if the fruit all sets, it must be also thinned. The trees should 
be trained low and their vigor encouraged by permitting a reasonable amount 
of young shoots to grow around the lower part of the main limbs. _ When 
this method is continued systematically every season, the trees will bear 
large crops of fruit, of good quality, for many years. When they are allowed 
to overbear for one or two seasons, the fruit will decrease in size, and soon 
become almost worthless ; the trees will be enfeebled, and in consequence 
very liable to be attacked by disease. The only thing to be done in this case 
is to cut off the whole top of the tree, allowing it to form a new head. I have 
seen old peach orchards thus renovated, and the results are often very flat- 
tering, but it is far better not to allow them to get into a condition where this 
desperate remedy is necessary." — Leonard Coates, Morgan Hill. 

Cutting Back the Peach Is not Shearing. — Some undertake the 
annual pruning of the peach by a shearing process, treating a fruit 
tree as one would a hedge — cutting everything to a line. There 
has been a good deal of this done in California, but it is wrong 
nevertheless. Shortening in the new growth of the peach each 
year. is proper practice. It is the first step toward preventing over- 
bearing of small, unmarketable fruit and saving the tree from 
profitless and injurious effort. Thinning the shoots by removing 
all but one when two or three start from the same point is also 
working toward large fruit and regular bearing in the tree. This 
shortening and thinning of the new wood must also be followed 
by thinning of the young fruit just after the natural drop and it is 
seen that the tree carries too many. Proper pruning can not be 
done by shearing because it is apt to shorten the strong shoots 
too much and the weak shoots too little. Each shoot must be 
cut by itself according to its growth and its ability to carry more 
or less fruit. Shearing, too, does not thin out the shoots but con- 
tinually multiplies them until the tree is full of brush as a hedge. 

THINNING PEACHES 

Thinning out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret of 
obtaining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with pruning in 
preserving the health and future production of the tree. The 
importance of thinning has been urged in a previous chapter, but 
the following is a very strong statement, by Mr. Culberston : 



280 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



In my own experience there is no single operation in connection with 
fruit growing of more importance than thinning. The past season, in order 
to test the difference in expense of preparing large and small peaches for 
drying, I timed the cutting, and found it took double the time ; hence, double 
the expense, which meant a difference of about $15 per ton of dried fruit. 
Add to this a difference of two cents per pound in price makes $55 per 
ton. Suppose an orchard under good treatment produces a ton of peaches 
to the acre, then $55 would represent the difference in profits. Unthinned or 
small fruit is certainly undesirable. 

As to how much thinning should be done there are diverse opinions. 
Some take off one-half, others three-fourths. Some growers thin to meet 
a certain ideal, but find it difficult to explain in words. The common rule 
if leaving a specimen of fruit every four or six inches is a safe rule ; that 
means many must come off. Different conditions of soils, climates and irri- 
gation vary the amount to thin out more or less. More may be left where 
the tree is on land giving a strong, vigorous growth. 

In thinning peaches I have been practicing a method that gives good 
results and is easily learned. The peach bears on three sizes of branches, 
that are one-eighth, three-sixteenths, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter. 
The first has two peaches, the second three, and the third four ; this, of 
course, after there has been a judicious course of pruning and the trees 
under irrigation ; trees on dry land should have only one-half as many left. 
To reach this result often a dozen may have to come off, allowing only two 
to remain. The more there are the greater necessity for thinning. 

The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which are 
likely to remain on the tree and which will drop of their own accord. 

IRRIGATION OF THE PEACH 

As the peach is the greatest deciduous fruit of the interior val- 
leys and foot-hills, it is also the deciduous fruit which is chiefly 
grown with irrigation. Most of the specific conclusions set forth 
in Chapter XV. are based upon experience with the peach and the 
reader is advised to consider them from that point of view. One 
of the most important points of success in irrigating the peach is 
to use enough water earlier in its growth so that application need 
not be made within about three weeks of ripening. Enough water 
before that will usually insure size on properly thinned trees and 
the withholding of water near ripening will secure good quality. 
After the crop is gathered, irrigation can be resumed to continue 
the late summer growth for next year's fruit buds and to save the 
tree from injury during the long autumn drouth. 

WORKING OVER PEACH TREES 

The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according 
to the demands of the canners of the market for dried fruit. The 
grower often finds varieties which he first selected, less healthy, 
less productive, or, for other reason, less desirable than others. 
There is, therefore, often occasion for working over trees. Bud- 
ding is often resorted to, buds being successfully set in quite old 
wood, providing buds from well-matured wood are taken. Wood 
buds from young trees unaccompanied by fruit are best, but 
because of greater certainty of securing the variety desired, it is 
common to take wood and fruit buds together from bearing trees. 



GRAFTING THE PEACH 



281 



A larger cut of bud and adjacent bark is taken when working in 
old bark than for use on seedlings. When a branch is budded, it 
is- sometimes broken at a distance beyond the bud and allowed to 
hang, the idea being to furnish the bud some but not too much sap. 
Some growers thus bud and break part of the branches, allow- 
ing others to remain unworked, to maintain the growing processes 
of the tree. These branches and those in which buds have not 
taken, are cut off and grafted the following spring. The almond 
is successfully grafted over with the peach, and this course has been 
followed with thousands of unproductive almonds. 

Grafting the Peach. — Grafting the peach by the ordinary top- 
grafting with a cleft graft seldom succeeds. A side graft with 
saw and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, formerly of 
the University Branch Experiment Stations, in southern California, 
as follows : 

Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does away 
with all difficulties arising from splitting and there is no cavity left in the 
heart of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the desired 
place as in cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down the side at 
an angle of about 45 degrees and trim out with a sharp knife. Place the 
knife blade a little to one side of the saw cut, a little farther from the edge 
at the top than at the bottom, and by pressing on the knife the whole sides 
of the crevice will be trimmed smoothly at one stroke ; this operation repeated 
on the other side of the saw cut will make a neat notch in the end of a 
solid limb. By cutting a little deeper from the saw cut at the top than at 
the bottom, and if the amateur does not trim his scion at the right angle, he 
can insert it gently in the crevice or notch and see just where to trim. If he 
is so slow that the fresh cut shows signs of discoloration, he can make a 
fresh surface by placing his knife parallel to the edges and shaving off a thin 
slice. He still retains the same angle, but the scion will set a little deeper, 
which is no objection. By cutting a thin layer off the top of the stump 
next to the notch will show exactly where the inside layer of bark is. The 
inside of the scion must be even with the inside layer of the bark of the 
stump or limb that is being grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly out or 
in at the top, it will make a correct union at some point and be sure to 
grow. If the inclination is very slight the union will extend over con- 
siderable length and will make a much better start than if the union is at 
only one point, owing to the enlarged surface through which the sap is 
transmitted. One of the most important points in grafting is to have good 
wax and go over the grafts a few days after they are put in and rewax them. 

DISEASES OF THE PEACH 

Curl-Leaf. — The most prevalent trouble with the peach tree in 
California is the curl-leaf. It was noticed from the first planting 
of peach trees by Americans, nearly sixty years ago, and free con- 
jecture as to its cause was indulged in until it was shown to be 
a specific fungus, and its prevention by washes of fungicidal 
character demonstrated. The treatment will be described in the 
chapter on tree diseases. The facts of its occurrence may be stated 
as follows : 

Curl-leaf is much more prevalent in some sections than others, 
and in one place than another in the same section, and some sec- 



282 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



tions are practically free from it. Some varieties are much more 
subject to curl-leaf than others; generally speaking, some curl 
nearly everywhere, others curl in one place and not in another, 
others are practically free from curl in all situations. 

Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem 
to injure either tree or fruit; severe cases destroy the fruit and 
sometimes the tree itself. The disease is almost always at its 
height when the young fruit is about the size of small peas. If the 
curl is "bad," the fruit will fall to the ground, there not being 
healthy leaves enough to afford the required support. If, however, 
the curl is moderate and partial, only a part and sometimes none 
of the fruit will be lost. The disease, as is well known, is of brief 
duration, say twelve to twenty days, after which the trees resume 
a healthy appearance in every respect, and if the fruit has been 
able to survive the ordeal, it also appears to grow and become as 
perfect as if no check had been given to its growth. But it is 
better to save the tree the burden of a new foliage growth. 

Mildew. — This disease, which occurs in the form of whitish 
felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally 
affects the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and 
occurs on certain susceptible varieties in many localities from the 
coast to the Sierra foot-hills. Observation in this State has fully 
affirmed the statement of Downing, that the serrate, glandless- 
leaved varieties are liable, and those with good glands on the leaf 
stems are free. 

The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varieties 
with serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has been 
found that some glandless-leaved varieties, although subject to 
mildew, resist curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth while to com- 
bat the mildew. This has been done effectually by treatment which 
will be described in a later chapter. 

As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight in 
others. 

The most serious disease which has thus far stricken the peach 
in California is locally known as the "peach blight," the work of 
a shot-hole fungus (coryneum). This also has been satisfactorily 
checked by spraying as will be described in the Chapter on Dis- 
eases of Trees and Vines. 

A common trouble of the peach known as "split-pit," has 
recently been studied by the California Experiment Station and 
the tentative conclusion has been reached that split-pits are physio- 
logical phenomena and not caused by disease germ. Whether this 
abnormal growth is due to weakness of variety or to cultural con- 
ditions is not determined. It is true that varieties differ in amount 
of splitting, and selection is being made to some extent on that 
basis. 



LEADING CALIFORNIA PEACHES 
Peach varieties approved by California growers. 



283 



VARIETIES. 



Upper Central Interior Mountain 

coast coast valley and valley Southern 

valleys. valleys. foot-hill. region. California. 



Alexander 

Amsden 

Albright 

Bergen 

Bilyeu 

Briggs's May 

California Cling 

Decker 

Early Charlotte 

Early Crawford 

Early York 

Elberta 

Foster 

George Fourth , 

George's Late Cling.... 

Gen. Bidwell 

Globe 

Golden Cling (Sellers) . . 

Hale's Early 

Heath Cling 

Henrietta (Levy's) 

Honest Abe 

Honey (Lukens') 

Imperial 

Indian Blood 

Jones's Large Early.... 

LaGrange 

Late Cravvrford 

Lemon Cling 

Lovell 

McDevitt Cling 

McClish Cling 

McKevitt Cling 

Mary's Choice 

Morris's "White 

Muir 

Newhall 

Nicholl's Cling 

Oldmixon Free 

Orange Cling 

Peento 

Persian Cling 

Phillips's Cling 

Piquet's Late 

Runyon's Orange Cling. 

Salway 

Smock 

Snow 

St. John 

Strawberry 

Stump 

Susquehanna 

Triumph 

Tuskena (Tuscan) 

Wheatland 

Wylie Cling 

Yellow Tuscany 



* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
** Most highly commended. 



284 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



VARIETIES OF THE PEACH 

Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in California, 
and, as with other fruits, it has been found that varieties must 
be chosen with^ reference to their success in special locations. 
Choice has also to be made accordino^ to the purpose of the grower, 
whether for early marketing, for sale to canners, for drying, or 
distant shipment or for late marketing. As with apples, there is 
little use of planting early varieties (unless it be for home or local 
use) except in very early regions. An early peach from a late 
region is killed by competition with better middle season sorts 
from the earlier regions. 

Dates of Ripening of Leading Varieties. — The relative ripening 
of a large number of peach varieties, as noted at the University 
Experiment Station, at Pomona, will be useful to planters in determ- 
ining proper succession of varieties, although of course the exact 
dates will not widely apply. 

VARIETY. First flower. Full flower. Ripe. 

Briggs's Red May March 4 March 24 June 16 

Amsden's June March 8 March 25 June 17 

Alexander March 17 March 31 June 17 

Large Early York March 4 March 18 July 15 

Yellow St. John March 4 March 12 July 17 

Crawford's Early March 2 March 15 July 21 

Foster March 4 March 15 July 21 

Oldmixon Free March 7 March 18 July 25 

Morris White March 4 March 15 Aug. 3 

Muir March 8 March 23 Aug. 5 

Susquehanna March 4 March 14 Aug. 5 

Crawford's Late March 2 March 14 Aug. 8 

Newhall March 4 March 14 Aug. 8 

Runyon's Orange Cling March 2 March 14 Aug. 8 

California Cling March 2 March 16 Aug. 12 

Stump the World March 2 March 16 Aug. 12 

Lovell Feb. 28 March 9 Aug. 13 

Nichols's Orange Cling March 4 March 14 Aug. 14 

Seller's Cling March 2 March 14 Aug. 14 

McDevitt's Cling March 2 March 18 Aug. 16 

McKevitt's Cling March 2 March IP Aug. 19 

Wilkins's Cling March 3 March 14 Aug. 20 

Indian Blood March 5 March 25 Aug. 20 

Yellow Tuscany Cling March 5 March 19 Aug. 21 

Lemon Cling March 14 April 1 Aug. 21 

Smock's Late Free March 4 March 18 Aug. 28 

Picquet's Late March 5 March 18 Sept. 1 

Staley"'s California March 2 March 15 Sept. 6 

Henrietta (Levy's) March 6 March 15 Sept. 15 

Heath's Cling March 7 March 14 Sept. 15 

Salway March 7 March 9 Sept. 18 



In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late varieties 
to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting season. The 
peach season in interior districts begins at the first of June with 
the Alexander, and continues to the end of November with local 



DESCRIPTIONS OP PEACHES 



285 



seedlings — giving six months of peaches. Of course the very early 
and very late sorts are only of use for marketing as table fruit. 
The most important series is a fine succession of mid -season 
peaches suitable either for canning, drying, or distant shipment. 
Such a selection can be made from the tables and descriptions 
which will be given later. 

Color is a most important item in the peach. While canners 
and Eastern shippers use the beautiful white peaches to advantage, 
the fashion for canning and drying is now strong in support of 
the yellow-fleshed clingstone varieties. The yellow freestone 
peaches are also in greatest demand. The color about the pit is 
also an important point. Canners demand a peach, whether white 
or yellow, which is almost free from color at the pit, because the 
extraction of the red color dyes the juice; in drying, the demand 
just now is for a yellow peach with a red center, because the colors 
give the dried fruit a more attractive appearance. Of course there 
is a market for dried white peaches but the preference is for the 
yellow. 

A succession of yellow freestones very popular in the San 
Joaquin Valley is the following: Foster, Wheatland, Elberta, 
Muii*, Lovell, Late Crawford, Salway. A succession of yellow 
clingstones is this : Tuskena, Seller's Runyon's, McDevitt's, Hen- 
rietta, Phillips. The two most popular white clings in the same 
region are McKevitt's and Heath. 

In the enumeration following the table only those seedlings, 
which are now commercially propagated are included. Many 
which were prominent ten years ago have been dropped by this 
test. The writer has record of many others some of them likely 
to rise to important place, which are reserved until after further 
trial. 

The following are the peaches chiefly grown in California, 
arranged approximately in the order of ripening: 

Brigg's Red May (California). — Originated as a chance seedling in nursery- 
row, on the farm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about one mile from 
Yuba City, about 1870. It was found to be about ten days earlier than the 
Early Tillotson, which was then the stand-by for an early peach. Fruit medium 
to large, round ; white skin with rich, red cheek ; partially free, a standard 
early variety; subject to mildew. 

Jones' Large Early (New York). — Large, roundish, flattened, white with 
deep crimson. 

Alexander (Illionis). — Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit 
medium to large ; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red ; flesh firm, 
juicy, and sweet; bears transportation well; pit is partly free. 

Triumph (Georgia). — Medium sized, early, yellow, partial cling, very good. 

Anisden (Missouri). — Resembles preceding, but averages smaller; claimed by 
some to be slightly earlier ; rather less liable to curl-leaf. 

Honey (Lukens). — Medium, oblong pointed, white mottled carmine;, very 
sweet, related to Peen-to. 



286 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Peen-to. — Flat peach or saucer peach of China; good in Southern California. 

Early Imperial (California). — Originated by W. W. Smith, Vacaville, and 
planted to secure a yellow freestone earlier or larger than St. John. Most 
growers find it no improvement on St. John. 

Yellow St. John (New Orleans). — Earliest yellow peach; averages smaller 
than Yellow Crawford, but classed as large ; roundish, orange yellow with deep 
red cheek; juicy, sweet and high flavored; freestone. 

Hale's Early (Ohio). — Medium to large, nearly round; skin greenish,_ mostly 
covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, melting, juicy, rich and 
sweet; fair for local market and shipping; widely grown; freestone. 

Strawberry (New Jersey). — Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply sunk; 
suture extending half way round; skin almost wholly marbled with deep red; 
flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate ; tree healthy. 

Bergen's Yellow (New York). — Large, roundish; suture deep; orange yellow, 
red cheek; approved in Southern California. 

Foster (Massachusetts). — Uniformly large, slightly flattened; slight suture; 
stem moderately depressed; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy; color deep orange, 
dark red in the sun ; freestone ; tree hardy and productive ; very widely grown 
in California and popular. Ripens before Early Crawford, which it sometimes 
resembles, but is of better quality. 

Crawford's Early (New Jersey). — Very large, oblong, swollen, point at the 
top prominent, suture shallow skin yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, rich, 
and excellent ; freestone ; tree very healthy and productive ; probably the most 
largely planted variety in California. 

George the Fourth (New York). — Large, round, deeply divided by broad 
suture sides unequal ; skin pale yellowish white, dotted with red and red cheek ; 
flesh pale, red at pit, from which it parts freely; quality good. Somewhat 
troubled with curl-leaf. 

Snow (American). — Large, globular; skin clear, beautiful, almost wholly 
white; flesh white to the free stone, juicy, rich and sprightly. 

Mary's Choice (New Jersey). — Large, yellow, resembling Early Crawford, 
but ripening later. 

Red Cheek Melocoton (American). — Large, roundish oval, swollen point at 
top ; yellow, with deep red cheek ; flesh yellow, red at stone, which is free, juicy, 
good flavor. Approved in Humboldt and San Benito Counties. 

Tiiskena (Alabama or Mississippi). — Wrongly called "Tuscan" and "Tustin" 
Cling in this State ; largely planted in interior valleys and foot-hills ; very large 
yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valuable for early shipping. 
Ripens with Crawfords Early. 

Oldmixon Free (American). — Large, roundish or slightly oval greenish or 
yellowish white, marbled with red; flesh white, tender, and excellent, juicy 
and rich ; high flavor. 

Honest Abe (California). — "Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma County. 
Large, yellow, with red cheek ; best quality ; ripens between Crawford's Early 
and Late. Does not curl." — James Shinn. 

Morris White. — Large, oval ; skin white with creamy tint when fully ripe ; 
flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet, and rich; especially 
good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf. 

Wager (New York). — Lemon yellow tinged with red; flesh yellow, rich, 
juicy, sweet, excellent, having much the appearance and flavor of apricots; stone 
small and free from the flesh ; quality best. 

Muir (California). — Originated as chance seedling on the place of John Muir, 
near Silveyville, named and first propagated by G. W. Thissell, of Winters. 
Fruit large to very large; perfect freestone; flesh clear yellow, very dense, rich 
and sweet; pit small; tree a good bearer r.nd strong grower, if on rich soil. 




o 



M 



287 



288 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



to which it is best adapted free from curl in Vacaville district ; fruit a good 
shipper and canner and pecuHarly adapted to drying because of exceptional 
sweetness and density of flesh ; yield, one pound dry from less than five pounds 
fresh. One of the best California seedlings. Claimed by some to be identical 
with Wager. 

Muir variations with large flowers, with fruit like Muir but not splitting at 
pit, reported by W. A. Rosander, Kingsburg, A. S. Coon, Fresno, and H. R. 
Shaw, Selma. 

Muir Cling by W. R. Fletcher, Green Valley, Sonoma County. Commended 
by Green Valley Cannery ; propagated by A. F. Scheidecker, Santa Rosa, T907. 

Wheatland (New York). — Large, roundish; skm golden yellow, shaded with 
crimson ; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality. 

Elherta (Georgia). — Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden-yellow, 
faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree prolific; perfect 
freestone. 

Newhall (California). — "Originated with Sylvester Newhall, of San Jose. 
Very large; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and 
a rich, vinous flavor ; ripens about one week before Crawford's Late ; tree 
very hardy, healthy, vigorous, and not affected by curl ; freestone." — John Rock. 

Stump the World (New Jersey). — Large, strong; skin creamy white, with 
bright red cheek; flesh white, juicy and high flavored. Commended for family 
use by the Southern California Nurserymen's Association. Curls somewhat in 
some localities ; freestone. 

Crazvford's Late (New Jersey). — Very large, roundish, yellow with dark red 
cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excellent; a pop- 
ular and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in some localities; 
freestone. 

Lemon Clingstone (South Carolina). — Large, lemon-shaped or oblong, having 
large, projecting, swollen point like a lemon; skin fine yellow; flesh firm, yellow 
with sprightly vinous subacid ; slightly red at the pit, which adheres firmly. 

Orange Clingstone. — Large, round; suture distinctly marked and extending 
r.early around the fruit ; no swelling at apex, like Lemon Clingstone ; deep orange 
color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with rich flavor; somewhat sub- 
ject to mildew. Though largely grown, this variety has been largely supplanted 
by the following sub-varieties, which are seedlings from it. 

Sellers' Golden Cling (California). — Originated on the farm of S. A. Sellers, 
Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large, rich golden 
color ; tree healthy ; one of the very best of clings ; ripens with Late Crawford. 

Runyon's Orange Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Sol Runyon, 
on the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Cling. Runyon's 
Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew like the common 
sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek ; rich, sugary, and 
vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively planted in the Sacramento 
region and elsewhere." — John Rock. 

Nichol's Orange Cling (California). — Originated by Joseph Nichols, of Niles, 
introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple ch-eek ; flesh yellow and 
good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer. 

- Peck's Orange Cling (California). — "Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma 
Count}'. Improved seedling of Orange Cling, of Downing. Large, handsome, 
yellow-fleshed, free from curl, hardy, vigorous, productive, superior for market 
or drying ; planted more extensively in Santa Rosa Valley than in any other." — 
Luther Burba}ije. 

Stilson (California). — "Originated at Marysville (?). Perfect shape; very 
large ; red cheek with crimson stripes ; yellow-fleshed, more highly colored than 
Susquehanna ; table and market quality excellent ; ripens after Crawford's Late ; 
freestone." — P. W. Butler. 

Susquehanna (Pennsylvania). — Large, nearly globular suture half round; skin 
rich yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, with rich, vinous 
flavor; freestone; tree healthy. Very widely distributed and popular. 



POPULAR CALIFORNIA PEACHES 



289 



McCowan's Cling (California). — Originated with Dr. McCowan, of Ukiah. 
Yellow cling ; round, smooth outline ; no suture ; no red at pit, which is small ; 
flesh firm, fine-grained, and sweet; not much subject to curl; fruit apt to run 
small unless carefully thinned ; reported an irregular bearer in Alameda County ; 
liked by canners ; approved by Placer County. 

Lovell (California). — Originated as chance seedling with G. W. Thissell, and 
named by him in 1882 ; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Yellow free- 
stone; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round; flesh fine, texture firm, solid, 
clear yellow to the pit; tree a good grower and bearer; superior for canning 
and shipping, and dries well. Said to curl in some places. "The richest peach 
I ever saw on a tray." — E. A. Bonine, Los Angeles County. The most popular 
yellow freestone for canning and drying. Sometimes reported as drying 
"heavier" than the Muir. 

McKevitt's Cling (California). — Originated as chance seedling in apricot 
orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKevitt, Vaca 
Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white clingstone; 
flesh very firm, fine-grained, sugary, and rich, high flavor, white to the pit ; skin 
strong and friut excellent for shipping or canning; tree remarkably strong in 
growth and free from disease. Widely distributed. 




The Lovell, a California seedling. 



290 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Phillips's Cling: a California seedling. 



McClish Cling. — Yellow cling, grown in Sonoma County. 

Wylie Cling. — An old seedling by John Wylie, Green Valley, Sonoma County, 
increasing in popularity in northern Sonoma County as superior to Orange 
Cling in not splitting at the pit, and not dropping from the tree. A fine peach 
for canning and drying. 

General Bidwell (California). — Originated from a shoot from a peach root 
upon which an apricot had grown and died, on Rancho Chico. Named by State 
Horticultural Society, September 4, 1886, and commended for cultivation. Ripens 
one week later than Late Crawford and ahead of Salway and Picquet's Late. 
About the shape of the Orange Cling, but larger ; very yellow with reddish 
cheek; flesh very solid, juicy, and rich; freestone and a small pit. 

California; syn. Edzvard's Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. 
Very large, round, regular ; orange, nearly covered with dark, rich red ; flesh 
deep yellow; flavor delicate, rich vinous." — C. W. Reed. 

Picquet's Late (Georgia). — Large to very large; round, sometimes a little 
flattened, yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and fragrant > 
freestone; not subject to curl-leaf. 

Smock Freestone (New Jersey). — "Large yellow, mottled with red; mod- 
erately rich and juicy. A better drying peach than Salway." — E. A. Bonine. 

La Grange (New Jersey). — Large, oblong; greenish white, some red on 
sunny side ; not desirable in coast regions ; freestone. 



POPULAR CALIFORNIA PEACHES 



291 



Salway (English). — Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extending 
beyond the apex; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson cheek; flesh 
deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; freestone; a standard 
late peach in California; tree very healthy. 

Phillips' Cling (California). — Originated with Joseph Phillips, of Sutter 
County ; propagated by J. T. Bogue, of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling, 
no color at pit, which is very small ; exceedmgly rich and high colored ; 
described by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best 
peach he ever used. The most popular yellow clingstone. Ripens progressively 
so that picking can cover two weeks without falling from tree. Requires good 
land and ample moisture. 

Persian's Cling (California). — "Originated in Visalia, probably from seed of 
Heath Cling, and a few days earlier than its parent. Large ; clear white skin 
and flesh, the latter very sweet ; commended for canning." — /. H. Thomas, 
Tulare County. 

Heath (Maryland). — Described by Downing as the most delicious of all 
clingstones. Very large; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red; 
flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor; best 
adapted- to interior regions, or places free from curl. 

Steadly (Missouri). — "Large to very large; white skin; flesh white at the 
pit, firm, rich, and good flavor ; freestone. Produces very heavy yield of dried 
fruit." — I. H. Thomas, Tulare County. 

George's Late Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. Large; 
white flesh, colored around the pit; beautiful yellow color, striped and splashed 
with bright red ; a very heavy and uniform bearer ; a good shipper and at its 
season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County that yields the 
grower so much profit." — P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew in some localities. 

Yellow Tuscany {Dura cini, Tuscany). — A very large yellow cling; propa- 
gated by G. Tosetti, formerly of San Leandro ; tree a strong grower and free 
from curl-leaf, very productive. On the basis of its behavior at the University 
Experiment Station at Pomona, this variety has recently been largely planted 
in Southern California. It is counted the best yellow cling for canning in that 
section. Ripens with Lemon Cling. 

Albright's Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Albright, near Placer- 
ville. Very large; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in quality and 
flavor. Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor, better shape, 
and the tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange Cling." — P. W. Butler. 
Endures long shipment even after being well colored. 

McDevitt Cling. — "Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County. Uni- 
formly large, rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe ; flesh very firm 
and solid, superior in flavor ; excellent shipper ; tree good and regular bearer. 

Staley (California). — Very large; eleven and one-half inches in circum- 
ference; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; rich, creamy white with 
very faint touches of light red; suture shallow, but almost continuous around 
the peach ; stone small and perfectly free, cavity considerable longer than stone ; 
flesh white to the pit, very juicy, fine, tender; flavor delicious. Originated as 
sucker from peach root from which prune had been broken off in Selma, Fresno 
County. Ripens twenty days after Salway or four weeks after Susquehanna. 
A high-class white freestone. Introduced by F. M. Nevins, Selma. 

Levy's Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia). — Above average size, 
yellow flesh, red cheek; late; clingstone. Very popular in San Joaquin Valley. 

Bilyeu's Late October. — "Large greenish white with red cheek; flesh whitish, 
freestone ; tree a rapid grower and attains great size ; prolific bearer ; fruit 
ships well, and where it will mature no peach can take its place does particu- 
larly well in the foot-hills." — P. W. Butler. 

Decker (California). — Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley, and in 
Sutter and Butte Counties. 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE NECTARINE 

The nectarine reaches perfection under California conditions, 
as does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact, as Down- 
ing says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth skin ; only a 
distinct, accidental variety of the peach; and this is rendered quite 
certain, since there are several well-known examples on record of 
both peaches and nectarines having been produced on the same 
branch. Nectarine pits usually produce nectarines again, but they 
occasionally produce peaches. Peach seeds occasionally produce 
nectarines; the Boston variety originated from a peach stone.* 
All these facts which are recorded of relation between the peach 
and nectarine have been verified by California observation. 

The practice of growing nectarines is also exactly like that 
employed with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the 
same ways, except that, as pointed out by Mr. Culbertson, the 
nectarine has more of a tendency to form short interior growths, 
and fruit buds are formed on the larger new growths, thus enabl- 
ing the pruner to cut them back more closely, and yet have an 
abundance of fruits buds remain. The peach and nectarines are 
the same in natural adaptations and requirements, and in diseases, 
so that what has been given concerning the growth of the peach 
in this State has an apt application in the case of the nectarine. 

The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as has 
been demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to the graft- 
ing over a good many unprofitable almond trees to nectarine, 
though this has not been done to the extent to which the French 
prune, and some other plums have been worked on old almond 
stocks. 

Comparative Production of Nectarine and Peach. — It may be 

wondered, considering the similarity of the peach and the necta- 
rine, why the former comes so near being our leading deciduous 
fruit and the latter is the least grown, but one, of all the temperate 
zone fruits, only the lowly quince being less in importance. The 
explanation is that the fruit buyer, both in California and at the 
East, prefers the peach, whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried, 
and some of those who have tried even a few acres of nectarines 
have found many occasions to wish the ground had been given 
to peaches. How much of this preference is due to lack of knowl- 



"Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees," p. 565. 

292 



NECTARINE VARIETIES 



293 



edge of the nectarine, and how much to its somewhat different 
flavor, it would be difficult to actually determine. 

It is true, however, that the nectarine is now advancing in popu- 
lar favor. This has been prophesied for some years and seems 
now being slowly realized because of the wonderful excellence of 
the nectarine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing 
beauty of the amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both 
when sun-dried and when produced by machine evaporators. The 
excellence of the canned nectarine, has also figured in the antici- 
pation. It is, however, questionable how far this anticipation 
has been realized, for it is estimated that the amount of dried nec- 
tarines is less than two per cent and of canned nectarines less than 
one-half of one per cent of the respective forms of peaches. Nor 
does the demand call for change in this proportion, for there is a 
slight advantage in the market value of the peach even in its great 
preponderance of supply. Still, the price for dried nectarines has 
been better of late, but whether this is due to better appreciation 
or reduced production, is a question. It is true that during the 
last decade many nectarines have been rooted out to be replaced 
by peach trees, or have been grafted over into peaches. There 
are, however, some growers who are confident that the nectarine 
will in the future rank much higher in the California fruit product. 
It would please growers and fruit driers and canners to popularize 
the nectarine, for its smooth skin makes it as easy to handle a? an 
apricot, and the beauty of the product, which certainly exceeds that 
of the peach, and is rather more easily attained, is very gratifying 
to the producer. 

VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE 

Varieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different local 
adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The varieties 
grown, are, however, comparatively few. The following have been 
found most satisfactory in California ; the descriptions are somewhat 
condensed from Downing's treatise, modified to suit local growth, 
and arranged approximately in the order of the ripening of the 
varieties : 

Advance. — Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh greenish 
white; rich and well flavored. The earliest to ripen. 

Lord Napier _ (English). ^Large, pale cream color with dark red cheek; 
flesh white, melting, tender and juicy, separating freely from stone; leaf glands 
reniform and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and regular 
bearer ; pronounced best in flavor at Pomona Experiment Station. 

Dozvnton (English). — Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit 
large, roundish, oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek ; flesh pale 
green, slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting rich, and very good. 

Early Newington (English). — Leaves serrated without glands, flowers large; 
fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and terminating 



294 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



with an acute, swollen point; skin pale green, but nearly covered with bright 
red and coated with thin bloom; flesh greenish white, but deep red at stone, 
which adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent. 

Hardzvicke (English). — ^Leaves with globose glands; fruit very large, round- 
ish, inclining to oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek; flesh pale 
green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and high-flavored ; 
freestone. This variety is a favorite in southern California ; described by the 
Southern California Nurserymen's Association as being the only satisfactory 
bearer. 

Boston. — Raised from a peach stone by T. Lewis, of Boston; tree hardy 
and productive ; leaves with globose glands ; flowers small ; fruit large and 
handsome, roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek ; flesh yellow to 
the stone (which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with pleasant 
and peculiar flavor ; freestone ; a general favorite in California. 

N'ezu White; syn. Large White. — Leaves with reniform glands ; flowers 
large ; fruit rather large, nearly round ; skin white with occasionally slight tinge 
of red; flesh white, tender, very juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; stone small and 
free commanded wherever nectarines are grown in California, and more freely 
planted than all other nectarines combined. 

Stamuick. — Originated in England from seed brought from Syria. Large, 
roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base; skin pale, greenish white, shaded 
into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, and 
delicious. 

Humholdt. — Very large, bright orange yellow vigorously marked with crim- 
son, flesh orange, tender; juicy, and high flavored. Described as one of the 
best of the newer varieties. Ripens late. 

As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying and 
canning of the fruit, the Hght-skinned, white or yellow-fleshed 
varieties without color at the stone, are most desirable. For dry- 
ing there has been thus far a decided preference for freestone vari- 
eties, though possibly the present popularity of cling peaches for 
drying may extend to the clingstone nectarines. Much color, 
however, either in skin or flesh, will prevent the production of 
the beautiful translucent, amber hue of the dried nectarine, which 
is attractive to consumers. Color in the flesh is, of course, unde- 
sirable in canning, because of the discoloration of the syrup. These 
facts have had much to do in fixing the popularity of the varieties 
named in the foregoing list. 

At present the largest orchards of nectarines are in the interior 
valley locations, which are also fine peach counties and are per- 
fectly adapted both to the growing of the fruit and to the open- 
air, sun-drying of it. 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE PEAR 

The oldest deciduous fruit trees in California are pear trees, 
as has already been stated in the account of fruits at the old mis- 
sions, and some of the trees are still bearing, though it is a century 
and a third since their planting. Trees planted by pioneers in the 
old mining districts have actually assumed semblance to adjacent 
oaks. XTotable instances are found in the Stillwater district of 
Shasta County and elsewhere. Near San Jose there is a tree over 
half a century old. with a trunk seven and a half feet around and 
yielding annually about fifteen hundred pounds of fruit, some of 
which was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition. 

The pear withstands neglect and thrives in soils and situations 
which other fruit trees would rebel against. It defies drouth and 
excessive moisture, and patiently proceeds with its fruitage even 
when the soil is trampled almost to rocky hardness by cattle, carry- 
ing its fruit and foliage aloft above their reach. And yet the pear 
repays care and good treatment, and receives them from California 
growers, for the pear has been one of our most profitable fruits. 
It is in demand for canning, for drying, and for distant shipment, 
and its long season and the slow ripening after picking allow delib- 
eration in marketing, and admit of enjoying low rates for shipment 
by slow trains. One of the most striking demonstrations of the 
commercial suitability of the California pear is found in successful 
marketing in London. Solomons, who is called "London's great- 
est fruiter," said in 1903 that California Bartletts from Block of 
Santa Clara are the "best in the world." Even after crossing the 
continent they seemed to endure shipment across the Atlantic better 
than eastern pears. 

The pear has not the beauty of the peach, nor is its handling 
characterized by so much dash and spirit, but the production of 
favorite market varieties at a time when the market welcomes 
them, is about as well repaid as any effort of the California fruit 
grower. Some idea of the yield of thrifty trees in large numbers 
can be had from the report of 100 acres of Bartletts on the Cone 
ranch near Red Bluff, which in 1904 yielded 900 tons of fruit 
which sold at $30 per ton — a gross yield of $27,000 of which not 
more than $7,000 were required to pay for the year's care and 
harvesting, a net yield of $200 per acre. There are much higher 
figures, of course, as the product of eight acres near Yuba City 
which yielded eighty tons in 1905, sold at $50 per ton or a gross 

295 



296 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



return of $500 per acre ; and 95 tons in 1906 at $36 per ton or $427 
per acre. There are higher returns than this, and, unfortunately, 
many that are much lower. 

The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and 
beauty. The most conspicuous example is the Bartlett, which is 
the pear of California, judged by its popularity, fresh, canned and 
dried. When well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate color, 
aroma, and richness unsurpassed. What extreme in point of size 
has been reached is not known to the writer, 'but he saw at the 
San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 1886, thirteen Bartlett pears grown 
by A. Block, of Santa Clara, which weighed fourteen pounds, the 
heaviest of the group weighing twenty-two and one-half ounces. 
Other pears have made standard sizes in California far in advance 
of their records elsewhere. There was in 1870 a Pound pear sent 
from Sacramento to the late Marshall P. Wilder, president of the 
American Pomological Society, which weighed four pounds nine 
ounces, and was reported by Colonel Wilder to be larger than any- 
thing previously reported in pear annals.* But California has 
recently done even better for a pear from near Marysville in 1904 
is reported as nine inches high, sixteen inches around the base and 
five pounds in, weight. Notes kept by the writer include five Vicar 
of Winkfields weighing four pounds eight ounces ; nine Easter 
Beurre weighing twenty-four and one-half pounds, the heaviest 
single specimen weighing two and three-fourths pounds ; thirty- 
five Beurre Clairgeau weighing thirty-seven pounds, the heaviest 
one, nineteen ounces; Seckel pears, nine and three-fourths inches 
in circumference — Downing's figures make the Seckel five and 
seven-eighths inches around. 

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEAR 

The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adaptations. 
It does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suitable vari- 
eties are grown ; it thrives far better than the apple in the interior 
valleys : it rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope of the Sierra 
N^evada, and gains from the altitude, color and late keeping, as 
does the apple. By rejecting a few naturally tender varieties, or 
by proper protection against the scab fungus (fusicladium dendriti- 
cum), in regions where its attacks are severe, one can grow pears 
almost everywhere in California — providing pear blight can be held 
in check, as will be discussed later. 

The choice of location is governed more by commercial consid- 
erations than by natural phenomena. The same facts which make 
the Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also should regulate 

* "Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, March, 1871, p. 87. An engraving of this 
fruit, natural size, was given in Pacific Rural Press, November 8, 1873." 



WHY THE BARTLETT RULES 297 

the choice of locality for growing it. These facts were expressed by 
the late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, who was in his time one of 
the leading pear growers and shippers of the State, as follows : 

In the Sacramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that will 
justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all varieties may 
be grown successfully, and many varieties may be desirable for home pur- 
poses, yet for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves to this one 
variety, except in high altitudes, or localities where the fruit only matures 
very late. The reason for this will be better understood by the inexperienced 
if explained. The Bartlett pear having qualities that make it a universal 
favorite for shipping, canning, and for domestic market, no other variety is 
wanted while it is obtainable. With the difference in the time of its ripening 
in different localities that are adjacent, our markets are supplied with this 
variety about four months each season, viz., July, August, September and Octo- 
ber. While this pear is in the markets, any other variety to compete with it 
must sell at very low prices. It is not only the great demand the Bartlett pear 
has over the other varieties in the markets, but as a healthy grower and regular 
bearer it has no equal. [This was written before the introduction of the pear 
blight.] In higher altitudes, where pears will keep till the Bartlett has dis- 
appeared, other varieties may be quite profitable, although they can never be 
grown to any similar extent. 

Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would soon 
cloy with a continuous diet of Bartletts, and who know fully the 
superior quality of other varieties which ripen soon after it, would 
dispute the position taken by Mr. Reed, but for present California 
taste and trade he is undoubtedly correct. As the canners and ship- 
pers and local consumers all call for Bartletts, and as they usually 
sell at the East for nearly twice the price of other varieties, the choice 
of location to secure a Bartlett, either very early or very late, is 
the part of wisdom, for either end of the season usually yields 
better prices than the middle. Some growers are even opening 
the Bartlett season by growing Clapp's Favorite, which sells well 
because it is taken for a Bartlett, and closing the season with the 
Winter Bartlett, a local variety recently introduced. The earliest 
Bartletts come from the interior valley sometimes as early as the 
last week in June; the next, from the valleys adjacent to the bay 
of San Francisco ; the next, from the higher foot-hills of the Sierra 
Nevada; and the last, so far as present experience goes, although 
some coast and mountain situations are quite late, reach the mar- 
ket from the Vacaville district. It is an interesting fact that this 
district, which has long been famous for marketing the first early 
fruits, should also market very late ones. It is true, however, that 
early fruits hasten to maturity and late fruits are retarded. Late 
fruits push along until about midsummer, then stop growing for 
a month or two during the hottest weather, and afterwards pro- 
ceed on their course and finish up well. W. W. Smith, of Vaca 
Valley, has picked Bartletts as late as November 19, but that is 
unusually late. In years with heavy late spring rains the Bartlett 
ripens earlier in the Vaca Valley than in ordinary seasons, and 
when the fruit sells well in the East, the Bartletts are gathered 



298 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



green and shipped all through the season, as their first growth 
usually makes them large enough for this purpose. 

Though the Bartlett is in wide favor, as stated, there is some 
progress being made in introducing other varieties, as will be 
stated in connection with the discussion of the adaptations of vari- 
eties. This substitution of other sorts is in part because the merit 
of others is being recognized, and in part because in some regions 
some of them are healthier and more trustworthy bearers than the 
Bartlett. 

There is produced in some situations a "second crop" of Bart- 
letts and of other varieties which is of account when pears are 
scarce and is sometimes dried with profit. For such fruit the 
bloom appears upon the tips of the shoots of the current season's 
growth. The fruit is sometimes coreless and has led to claims 
of "seedless pears." Bartlett pears have actually been picked in 
the foot-hills above Peatz in Butte County on February 25, 1905, 
and described as "fine, delicious and ripe." This fact must be 
regarded as a token of local climatic salubrity and not of economic 
or pomological account. 

SOILS FOR THE PEAR 

The pear, if it is not allowed to dry out entirely, will generally 
do well on shallow soil and over a tight, clay hard-pan, where 
most other fruits would be unsatisfactory or fail utterly. The 
trees will thrive in clay loams, and even in adobe, if properly cul- 
tivated. In laying out fruit farms, which often include a variety 
of soils, even in comparatively small area, the pears and plums 
(if on the right stock, as will be seen) should beset in the lower, 
moister, stiffer soil, and other fruits on the lighter, warmer, and 
better-drained portions. The pear, however, enjoys the better sit- 
uation, though it will thrive on the poorer. The tree seems to 
attain its greater growth and heaviest bearing on the alluvial soils 
of the valleys and near the banks of rivers and streams. All pears 
will be later in maturing and have better keeping qualities if grown 
on a clay subsoil. Thus it appears that the pear will flourish 
whether the water is near or far from the surface. On wet land 
the apple is apt to die in a few years, or become worthless. On 
dry land the apple lives longer, but the fruit is small and tasteless. 
But the pear tree may bear good fruit, under the same conditions. 

It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish 
on soil somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station at Tulare, this subject has been demonstrated in 
detail. It is shown that though the pear endures a certain amount 
of alkali its limit of endurance may be often exceeded and there 
is little warrant to select alkali soil for pears, unless it be to fill 
a space that would otherwise be vacant in the orchard. If it is 



PEAR PROPAGATION 



299 



not too alkaline the pears will thrive. If gypsum be used in plant- 
ing, somewhat stronger alkali will be endured than otherwise. 

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING 

The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been nearly aban- 
doned in this State, though in early years the quince was largely 
used. The most prominent orchard on quince stock is that of A. 
Block, of Santa Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees originally 
planted eight feet apart in squares, but now wider spaced by 
removing part of the trees; the remainder doing exceedingly well 
under liberal manuring and irrigation. It is quite possible that, 
at least for gardens, there may be in the future more use made of 
dwarf trees, but for commercial orchards there appears no need 
of dwarfing. The common conclusion is that it is better to have 
fewer trees and larger ones, but since the pear blight became an 
issue in this State the Angiers quince has been advocated as a 
means of maintaining a sound root and keeping the warfare above 
ground. 

The following varieties are commended for cultivation on quince 
stock as dwarfs, experience proving them vigorous growers and 
abundant bearers in suitable localities : Bartlett, Beurre Hardy, 
Doyenne du Comice, Duchess d'Angouleme, Glout Morceau, 
Pound, Beurre Diel, White Doyenne, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis, 
P. Barry, Winter Bartlett. 

But the pear is usually grown in California on its own roots; 
that is upon imported French pear seedlings. It comes into bear- 
ing early enough, and is a long-lived tree unless badly attacked 
by blight. Trees are grown by either budding or grafting, as 
described in the chapter on that subject. Only good seedling 
roots should be used, and not suckers from old trees. The Japan- 
ese stock, so called, being seedlings of the Sand pear, of Asia, 
has been used to some extent, but no definite results reported. 
Propagation upon rooted cuttings of the Le Conte, which has 
a measurable resistance to the pear blight, has been advised for 
the purpose of securing less susceptible roots. Mr. M. B. Waite, 
orchard pathologist of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, has in progress a test of many cross-bred seedlings in the hope 
of reaching a hardier seedling stock for pears than is now known. 
He also proposes top grafting the Bartlett upon Winter Nelis, 
Seckel, Angouleme, Lawson and other partially immune varieties to 
increase the chances of securing a somewhat resistant tree-body and 
sound roots. Fortunately the pear is readily grafted-over by the 
common methods. 

Distance in Planting. — If the pears are to have the whole' 
ground, it is usual to plant from twenty to twenty-four feet apart 



300 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



on the square. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bear- 
ing than the stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears 
are sometimes set twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx. 
Peaches and apricots are also set between pears sometimes, when 
the soil chosen for pears suits them also. 

PRUNING 

Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in 
the general chapter on pruning. With regular, upright growers, 
heading low and cutting to outside buds results in a handsome, 
gently-spreading top, and effectually curbs the disposition which 
some varieties, notably the Bartlett, have to run straight up with 
main branches crowded together. 

As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and pruning 
must be done with an understanding of the habit of the variety 
under treatment. Irregular and wayward growers, which, in 
windy places, also have their rambling disposition promoted by 
prevailing winds, often give the grower much perplexity. The 
general rules of cutting to an outside bud to spread the tree, to 
an inside bud to raise and concentrate it. and to an outside bud 
one pear and an inside bud the next, if a limb is desired to Con- 
tinue in a certain course, are all helpful to the pruner. But with 
some pears, of which the AVinter Nelis is a conspicuous example, 
it is exceedingly hard to shape the tree by these general rules, 
and some growers abandon all rules, merely shortening in where 
too great extension is seen, or to facilitate cultivation, and trust 
to shaping the tree when it shall have finished its rampant grow- 
ing period. It will be interesting to cite a few methods of Cali- 
fornia pear growers : 

"The Winter Nelis pear is an uncouth grower. Let the trees alone until 
they have borne a good, heavy crop, and the limbs come down and spread 
out nicely ; this will occur in five or six years after setting. This will give 
you an idea what you want to do with the balance of the top that is not borne 
down with the fruit. My plan is to cut straggling branches, thin out so that 
the branches will not wind around each other, but don't cut the top, for you 
will find that the more you cut the more wood you get, and after the tree 
comes into full bearing is plenty of time to head back." — A. Cadwell, Petaluma. 

"Our orchard is not in a very windy place, but still it is windy enough to 
throw our Nelis trees out of form. To get any regularity of shape, we cut 
off every year all the shoots growing low down on the leeward side, shortening 
in what are left as occasion may require, to an inside bud. On the windward 
side we rarely cut any branch out, but shorten in a little to an outside bud, 
frequently being obliged to cut back a strong shoot to a lateral which is grow- 
ing outward." — Leonard Coates, Napa. 

"It is hard to get a misshapen Winter Nelis tree into shape. Let the grower 
take his shears and go around the tree and examine the difficulty until he is 
conversant with it, and then commence to prune, not too heavily, though. Cut 
the limbs that lean too far leewards back a little with an inside bud, and 
train all future limbs toward the weather side of the tree; cut the limbs this 



PRUNING THE PEAR 



301 



year so that the coming buds will form limbs growing in the direction of the 
weather side of the tree. But use moderation and take your time for it, and 
don't cut too many big limbs off three-year-old trees — none, in fact, if it can 
be helped. In bringing limbs to proper place, I have found a piece of corn- 
stalk- the required length for the intended place, inserted endwise between the 
limb and the body of the tree to be spread, to be a very good brace, easily 
made, and not likely to injure the tree." — T. E. Owen, Santa Cms. 

These methods will suggest others by which one can bring 
the most irregular grower into shape. If the tree is cut at plant- 
ing so as to form the head low, it may be safely left until bearing 
age for shaping. The tree naturally makes a viny growth of 
young wood, and the object of leaving it alone is that one limb 
holds the others more upright until the main limbs become large, 
or stiff enough to keep the shape; so they may be left, after being 
thinned out to form three to five limbs, as judgment may direct. 
Some trees will be best with three or four, others five. 

The experience of pear pruning just cited has been secured in 
regions more or less subject to coast influences. In the hot interior 
valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care must be taken to 
prune so as not to open the tree too much to the sun, but to shorten 
in and thin out only so far as is consistent with maintaining a good 
covering of foliage. 

The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the 
apple, to be determined largely by the habit of the tree, and to 
secure a fair amount of fruit on branches with strength and stiff- 
ness enough to sustain it. 

Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young or an 
old tree and some practice it to secure early bearing of young trees, 
but the common practice is winter pruning to secure strong wood 
and prevent overbearing. 

THINNING PEARS 

It is quite important to attend to thinning the fruit on over- 
loaded trees. Even the popular Bartlett will often give fruit too 
small for profitable sale unless thinned. With pears, as other 
fruits, thinning should not be done until it is seen that the fruit 
is well set. Dropping off from natural causes sometimes thins the 
crop quite enough. 

IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR 

In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will 
endure drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees. There 
is no profit in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chapter on 
irrigation the wood growth and fruit show whether proper moisture 
needs are met or not. Early pears are advanced in development 
by irrigation in some parts of the State, and this is an miportant 
factor in their value. 



302 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



BLIGHT OF THE PEAR 



Although California pear growers who came to the State en- 
dowed with eastern experience have always apprehended the intro- 
duction of the true pear blight and shivered every time they saw 
die-back or blackening on a pear branch, the probability is that 
all early reports of its entrance were misapprehensions until the 
real scourge appeared in the San Joaquin Valley about a decade 
ago. The rapidity with which trees began to be destroyed at that 
time manifested its habit in this State and warrants the conclu- 
sion that earlier troubles of the tree probably arose from other 
causes. In 1904, after having nearly wiped out bearing trees in 
the southern counties of the San Joaquin Valley the disease began 
to devastate the orchards along the Sacramento River through 
the vast area of rich valley land which it traverses and on which 
is situated our most extensive pear acreage. In 1905 resolute 
warfare was made upon the blight, with a large appropriation of 
State funds, by the plant disease experts of the United States 
Department of Agriculture and of the California Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, with the assistance of the local horticultural 
authorities. It was probably the greatest campaign ever made 
against a single tree disease although some insect warfares have 
been greater. The outlines of the plans followed and the results 
attained are to be found in the publications of the institutions 
engaged.* 

In a l^ter chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines, an outline 
of procedure against pear blight will be given. It is apprehended 
that neither paying crops nor living trees can be counted upon in 
the future unless the disease is successfully kept under control 
by successful fighting or by recourse to some form of natural 
immunity which can be discovered or developed by plant breeding. 
It is probable that pears can not be grown in the future as cheaply 
and profitably as in the past and there is a certain amount of 
bravery or daring in pear investments at the present time. It 
is encouraging, however, to note that in California the disease 
shows signs of relaxing the virulence which characterized its first 
attacks and it is reasonable to believe that here as elsewhere it 
may be possible to have the blight and pears also. The reader 
must keep himself continually informed of the various phases of 
the problem as they will arise, by careful study of our excellent 
California horticultural journals and of later publications from the 
official sources which have been indicated. 



* Reports of the California Commissioners of Horticulture, 1901 to 1906, includ- 
ing Reports on California Fruit Growers' Conventions for 1905-6-7, J. W. Jeffrey, 
Commissioner, Sacramento. Report of Plant Pathologist, University Experiment 
Station, Berkeley, 1906 and 1908. 



THE PEAR BLIGHT 



303 



The very exuberance of the pear in Cahfornia seems to increase 
the virulence of the blight. The long growing season with its con- 
tinual production of new soft tissue, the unseasonable bloom which 
attracts bees to bring new supplies of blight germs, the break 
of new shoots from root, trunk and main branches — all these make 
the tree subject to repeated renewals of the disease in its most 
vulnerable parts. How far growth can be -repressed by scant cul- 
tivation or by summer pruning; how far suppression of later shoots 
and blooms is practicable and whether the tree can be depleted 
so that it can only make fair sized fruit and no surplus soft tissue 
for blight invasion — all these are cultural problems which make 
pear growing very interesting to the enquiring mind. A Sonoma 
grower suggests that pruning may be used to control pear blight 
in the following manner: It is the natural tendency of the pear 
and apple while young to form fruiting spurs upon the body and 
larger branches of the tree. These fruiting spurs produce blos- 
soms from year to year, which are in turn as liable to be visited 
by bees or other insects carrying the destructive spores of the 
disease as are the blossoms at the ends of the branches. It is 
evident, therefore, that a blossom situated upon the body or 
larger branches of a tree, becoming infected, would communicate 
the disease directly to the framework of the tree, with the result 
that it would be fatally injured ; but if these fruiting spurs are all 
removed from the body and larger branches by pruning, the possi- 
bilities of infection in this way are overcome. The available means 
of gaining entrance to the tree by this parasite is confined to the 
smaller branches, which if affected can be cut away without 
severely injuring or disfiguring the tree. All suckers at the base 
of the tree should be removed at the point where they emerge 
from the trunk or the roots as they favor the entrance of blight 
to the root. The Leconte root is being used because of its resist- 
ance. 

The scab fungus which seriously affects some varieties, and 
notably the Winter Nelis, in the Coast region, is identical with the 
scab of the apple and will be mentioned in the chapter on tree 
diseases. Because of the liability of the Winter Nelis, to this dis- 
ease, and because of its irregular bearing in the coast region, there 
have been many trees grafted over into varieties better suited to 
coast conditions. The Beurre Clairgeau, because of its health, 
prolific bearing, and acceptability to shippers, was largely intro- 
duced in this way, but it has not sold as well as expected. Ordi- 
nary top grafting succeeds admirably with the pear. Clapp's Fav- 
orite and other varieties have also been worked upon Winter Nelis 
but they are apt to be more susceptible to blight than Winter 
Nelis so this old practice is now of less value than formerly. 



304 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS 



Many pear growers make the common mistake of allowing 
the fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and 
ripening in a cool, dark place. Pears should be picked at the first 
indication of ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of the stem 
to part from the spur when the pear is gently raised up. This 
test applies especially to the Bartlett. Picking at this stage and 
laying away in the dark ripens up the Bartlett well. When picked 
at this stage and sent overland by slow freight, they ripen en route 
and the boxes open well on the Eastern markets. There are a few 
varieties which shrivel if ripened under cover, but the rule is a good 
one, and the grower will soon note the exceptions. Many desirable 
varieties have, no doubt, been pronounced poor and insipid because 
allowed to ripen on the tree. 

To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or inclosed 
in drawers. They do not do as well as apples on shelves open 
to circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-skinned apple 
endures exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy cheek and sound 
heart in spite of wind, rain, and rough weather. The pear under 
similar conditions decays rapidly. 

POLLINATION OF PEARS 

As very few varieties of pears are largely grown in California 
and as the Bartlett generally bears well when grown in large acre- 
ages by itself, the eastern claim that the Bartlett is self-sterile 
does not seem to be justified in California experience. Recent 
observations indicate that even at the east the Bartlett is self- 
fertile when conditions are favorable to setting of the fruit and 
self-sterile when they are otherwise. As conditions are usually 
favorable in California this may be the reason why its self-fertility 
is more conspicuous here than at the east. It has been individ- 
ually noted, however, that the White Doyenne is a good fertilizer 
for the Bartlett. The Winter Nelis is the one of the pears com- 
mercially worth growing which is most apt to be fruitless, but 
thus far association with other varieties has not been demon- 
strated to be a full remedy. For the assistance of those who desire 
to test pear pollination the following statement is made of the 
relative dates of bloom of a large number of varieties, based upon 
records kept in Tulare County : 



VARIETY. First bloom. Full bloom. 

Barry March 10 March 20 

Bartlett March 14 March 24 

Belle Lucrative March 14 March 26 

Beurre Clairgeau March 11 March 22 

Beurre d'Amanlis March 10 March 20 

Bevirre d'Anjou March 16 March 24 



WHEN PEARS BLOSSOM 



305 



VARIETY. First bloom. Full bloom. 

Beurrg Diel March 20 March 30 

Beurre Giffard March 16 March 26 

Beurre Gris d'Hiver March 14 March 24 

Beurre Hardy March 18 March 28 

Clapp's Favorite March 14 March 24 

Colonel Wilder March 14 March 24 

Counseiller de la Cour March 12 March 22 

Dearborn's Seedling March 16 March 28 

Doyenne d'Alencon March 18 March 28 

Doyenne d'Ete March 18 March 28 

Doyenne du Comice March 16 March 26 

Duchesse d'Angoulene March 12 March 20 

Easter Beurre March 14 March 20 

Flemish Beauty March 20 March 30 

Forelle March 2 March 10 

Frederick Clapp March 16 March 26 

Howell March 14 March 24 

Jaminette March 12 March 22 

Josephine de Malines March 12 March 22 

Keifer's Hybrid March 2 March 10 

Kennedy March 14 March 24 

Lawrence March 12 March 22 

Lawson March 16 March 26 

Le Conte Feb. 28 March 2 

Louise Bonne de Jersey March 10 March 20 

Seckel March 14 March 24 

Sheldon March 18 March 28 

Souvenir du Congrgs March 20 March 29 

Swan's Orange March 14 March 24 

"Vernon March 8 March 19 

White Doyenne March 14 March 24 

Winter Nelis March 12 March 20 



VARIETIES OF THE PEAR 

Though large collections of famous Eastern and European 
pears have been brought to California, the peculiarity of the local 
market, and demand for canning and shipping has led to concen- 
tration upon very few sorts. The pears chiefly grown in Cali- 
fornia are the following, arranged approximately in the order 
of their ripening: 



Harvest; syn. Sugar Pear (American). — Small, roundish, pale yellow, 
brownish in sun, brown and green dots ; flesh v/hitish, rather dry but sweet ; 
tree upright, young wood olive yellow brown. 

Madeleine (French). — Medium, obovate pyriform, stalk long and slender, 
set on the side of a small swelling ; pale yellowish green, rarely brownish blush ; 
calyx small, in shallow, furrowed basin; flesh white, juicy, delicate. 

Wilder Early (American). — Small to medium, yellow with red cheek; sweet, 
and good. Recently introduced and profitable for local sale in San Diego 
county. Should not be confused with Col. Wilder, a California seedling which 
has gone out of use. 

Bloodgood (New York). — Tree short, jointed, deep reddish brown wood; 
fruit medium turbinate, inclining to obovate, thickening abruptly into stalk; 
yellow, sprinkled with russet dots ; calyx strong, open, almost without depres- 
sion ; stalk obliquely inserted, without depression, short, fleshy at its base; 
flesh yellowish white, melting, sugary, aromatic ; core small. 



306 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Clapp's Favorite (Massachusetts). — Tree a strong grower; young shoots 

dark reddish brown ; fruit large, slightly obtuse pyriform ; pale lemon yellow 

with brown dots ; flesh fine, melting, juicy, with rich, sweet delicate, vinous 
flavor; resembles Bartlett, but lacks musky flavor. 

Dearborn's Seedling (Massachusetts). — Young shoots long, reddish brown; 
under medium size ; roundish pyriform ; smooth, clear, light yellow, with few 
minute dots ; stalk slender set with very little depression ; calyx spreading in 
shallow basin; flesh white, very juicy, melting, sprightly. 

Lawson; syn. Comet (New York). — Medium to large, bright crimson on 
yellow ground ; flesh fine, rich and sweet. 

Souvenir du Congres (French). — Large to very large (exceeding Bartlett 
and Clapp's Favorite, to both of which it bears a strong resemblance) ; skin 
smooth, bright yellow when fully ripe, brilliant carmine in the sun ; flesh 
resembling Bartlett, but has not the musky flavor ; firm to the core ; tree a 
good grower, but somewhat subject to smut. 

Bartlett (English). — Tree a strong grower, early bearer, and healthy; fruit 
large, smooth, clear yellow, sometimes with delicate blush ; stalk moderately 
long, stout and inserted in shallow cavity; calyx open; flesh white, fine 
grained, juicy, buttery, highly perfumed (musky), vinous flavor. 

Beiirre Hardy. — Large, long obovate, sometimes obscurely pyriform ; skin 
greenish with thin, brown russet ; stalk an inch long ; cavity small, uneven, 
oblique, basin shallow ; buttery, somewhat melting, rich, slightly subacid ; tree 
a strong grower. 

Flemish Beauty (Belgian). — Large, obovate, often obscurely tapering to the 
crown, very obtuse, surface slightly rough, with some reddish brown russet 
on pale yellow ground ; flesh juicy, melting, and good if picked early and 
ripened in the house. 

Seckel (Pennsylvania). — Rather small, regularly formed, obovate; brownish 
green, becoming dull yellowish brown, with russet red cheek ; stalk slightly 
curved, and set in a trifling depression ; calyx small and set in a very slight 
depression; flesh whitish, buttery, very juicy and melting, with peculiarly rich, 
spicy flavor and aroma. 

Hozvell (Connecticut). — Rather large, roundish pyriform, light waxen yel- 
low, often with finely-shaded cheek thickly sprinkled with minute russet dots 
and some russet patches ; stalk medium, without cavity and sometimes lipped ; 
sometimes in small cavity ; calyx open in large, uneven basin ; flesh whitish, 
juicy, brisk, vinous. 

Duchess d' Angouleme (France). — Very large, oblong obovate; somewhat 
uneven, knobby surface ; dull greenish yellow, streaked and spotted with russet ; 
stalk long, stout, bent, deeply set in irregular cavity ; calyx set in somewhat 
knobby basin; flesh white, buttery, and juicy, with rich flavor. 

Louise Bonne of Jersey (France). — Large oblong pyriform, a little one- 
sided; glassy, pale green in shade, brownish red in the sun, numerous gray 
dots ; stalk curved, rather obliquely inserted, without depression, or with a 
fleshy, enlarged base; calyx open in a shallow uneven basin; flesh very juicy, 
and melting, rich, and excellent ; very prolific. 

Beurre Diel (Belgium). — Large, varying from obovate to obtuse pyriform; 
skin rather thick, lemon yellow, becoming orange yellow, marked with large 
brown dots and marblings of russet ; stalk stout, curved in rather uneven 
cavity ; calyx nearly closed, in slightly furrowed basin ; flesh yellowish white, a 
little coarse-grained near the core ; rich, sugary, buttery, delicious. 

White Doyenne; syn. Virgalieu (Franch). — Medium to large, regular, obo- 
vate ; smooth, clear pale yellow, sprinkled with small dots, sometimes red 
cheeked ; stalk brown, little curved, in small round cavity ; calyx small, closed 
in shallow basin ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, rich, and high flavored. 

Beurre Bosc (Belgium). — Large pyriform, a little uneven, often tapering 
long and gradually into the stalk; skin pretty smooth, dark yellow, dots and 
streaks of cinnamon russet, slightly red on one side ; stalk long, rather slender, 
curved ; calyx short, in shallow basin ; flesh white, melting, buttery, rich, with 
slightly perfumed flavor. 



POPULAR PEAR VARIETIES 307 

Onondaga; syn. Swan's Orange (Connecticut). — Large, obtuse, oval pyri- 
form, neck very short and obtuse, body large and tapering to obtuse apex ; flesh 
melting, sprightly, vinous. A vigorous, upright grower, healthy; yellow shoots; 
sells well in distant markets. 

Beurre Clairgeau (France). — Large, pyriform, but with unequal sides; yel- 
low, shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with russet dots, some- 
times sprinkled with russet; stalk short, stout and fleshy, inserted by a lip at 
an inclination almost without depression; when lip is absent, the cavity is 
uneven; calyx open; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, granular, sugary, perfumed, 
vinous. A popular variety for local and distant markets. 

Beurre d'Anjou (France). — Large, obtuse pyiiform; stem short, thick, and 
fleshy, in a cavity, surrounded by russet ; calyx small, open in small cavity, 
russeted ; skin greenish, sprinkled with russet, sometimes shaded with dull 
crimson, brown and crimson dots ; flesh whitish, not very fine, melting, juicy, 
brisk, vinous flavor, perfumed; tree a fair grower, but somewhat affected by 
fungus. 

Dana's Hovey; syn. Winter Seckel (Massachusetts). — Small, obovate, obtuse 
pyriform ; greenish yellow or pale yellow, with much russet and brown dots ; 
stalk rather short ; a little curved, set in slight cavity, sometimes lipped ; calyx 
open and basin small; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic. 

Vicar of WinkHeld (France). — Large and long pyriform; pale yellow, fair 
and smooth, sometimes with brownish cheek and marked with small brown 
dots ; stalk slender, obliquely inserted without depression ; calyx large, open, 
set in a basin verj'- slightly sunk; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, with good 
sprightly flavor. 

Doyenne dii Cornice (France). — Large, varying, roundish pyriform, ov 
broad, obtuse pyriform ; greenish yellow becoming fine yellow, shaded with 
crimson, slightly marked with russet spots, and thickly sprinkled with russet 
dots; stalk short, stout, inclined and set in shallow cavity, often russeted; calyx 
small, open; basin large, deep and uneven; flesh white, fine, melting, aromatic. 
Very profitable during last few years in eastern shipments. 

Glout Morceau (Flemish). — "Rather large, varying in form, but usually 
short pyriform, approaching obtuse oval ; neck very short and obtuse ; body 
large and tapering towards crown ; often considerably ribbed ; green, becoming 
pale greenish yellow ; stalk stout, moderately sunk ; calyx large ; basin dis- 
tinct, rather irregular flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, rich, sweet, 
and fine flavor." — /. /. Thomas. 

Block's Acme (California seedling, by A. Block, of Santa Clara). — Large 
and very handsome, surpassing Beurre Clairgeau in size and color ; regularly 
formed, pyriform, skin pale yellow, covered with russet all over, which becomes 
a fine growing red on the side exposed to the sun ; flesh white, crisp, and 
melting, juicy, sweet, and slightly musky; a pear that will rank foremost 
with our best shipping pears; reserved by originator for his own export trade. 

Winter Nelis (Belgium). — Medium, roundish, obovate, narrowed in near 
the stalk; yellowish green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal covered 
with russet ; stalk rather long, bent, and set in narrow cavity ; calyx open in 
shallow basin ; flesh yellowish, white, fine grained, buttery, very melting, and 
full of rich, sweet, aromatic juice. 

P. Barry (California seedling by B. S. Fox). — Fruit large, elongated pyri- 
form, a little obtuse ; skin deep yellow, nearly covered with a rich golden russet ; 
stalk of medium length and thickness, set rather obliquely on a medium cavity, 
sometimes by a lip; flesh whitish, fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous, 
and rich. "An early and prolific bearer. December to January." — California 
Nursery Co. The pear, P. Barry, is recommended for planting, by the South- 
ern California Nurserymen's Association. It is, to some extent, displacing 
the Winter Nelis as a more healthy tree and a more certain bearer. 

Easter Beurre (France). — Large, roundish, obovate obtuse, often rather 
square in figure ; yellowish green, sprinkled with many russet dots and some 
russet patches ; stalk rather short, stout, set in an abruptly sunken, obtuse 



308 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



cavity; calyx small, closed, but little sunk among plaited folds of angular 
basin; flesh white, fine-grained, very buttery, melting, and juicy, sweet, rich 
flavor; was successfully shipped from California to England as early as 1872. 

Pound. — Large, pyriform ; yellowish-green with red cheek, esteemed for 
cooking ; reaches enormous size in this State as already noted. 

Kieffer and Le Conte. — These pears, recently introduced as especially hardy 
varieties, are grown to a limited extent in all parts of the State, but are 
usually condemned as inferior to the European varieties which attain such 
excellence in this State. The Le Conte root is used as a stock for the Bartlett 
because of its resistance to blight. 

Crocker's Bartlett (California). — Chance seedling on place of L. L. Crocker, 
Loomis, Placer county. Introduced by Mr. Crocker in 1902. Described in 
year book, 1905, of U. S. Department of Agriculture ; medium to large, oblong, 
obovate, pyriform ; rich golden jrellow, somewhat russety ; quality very good ; 
keeps until March. Claimed to be blight-free and regularly productive. 

Winter Bartlett (Oregon). — Chance seedling in a dooryard in Eugene, 
Oregon. Introduced in California by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno. Closely 
resembles Bartlett in shape and appearance and flavor but a little coarser ; 
ripens four months later than Bartlett in interior situations in California and 
promising as a winter pear. 



Pear varieties approved by California growers. 



VARIETIES. 

Angouleme, Duchess'd... 

Anjou 

Bartlett 

Bloodgood 

Bosc 

B. S. Fox 

Brandywine 

Clairgeau 

Clapp's Favorite 

Comice 

Dana's Hovey 

Dearborn 

Diel 

Easter Beurre 

Emile d'Heyst 

Flemish Beauty 

Glout Morceau 

Hardy, Beurre 

Howell 

Kieffer 

Lawson 

Louise, Bonne de Jersey. 

Madeleine 

Onondaga 

P. Barry 

Seckel 

Souv. du Congres 

Vicar of Winkfield 

Wilder, Early 

"V^^hite Doyenne 

TVinter Bartlett 

Winter Nelis 



Upper 

coast 

valleys. 



Central Interior Mountain 
coast valley and valley and Southern 
valleys. foot-hill, plateaux. California. 



* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
** Most highly commended. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
PLUMS AND PRUNES* 

The plums of California are exceptionally fine in appearance 
and of high quality. Both tree and fruit have thus far escaped 
the parasites which have wrought greatest injury on the eastern 
side of the continent. The curculio has never been found here, 
and the "black knot," though detected in some of the indigenous 
species of the genus prunns,-\ has never been observed in our 
orchards. The tree suffers, it is true, as do most other fruit trees, 
from various pests and diseases but their work is a light affliction 
compared with the ravages of the curculio and black knot which 
Eastern plum growers have to contend against. Because of reduced 
planting during the last few years, the plum stands second in point 
of number among the fruit trees of California, for, as noted in 
Chapter XX, the peach now holds first place. Of the plums, at 
least four-fifths are those varieties designated as prunes. This is, 
of course, owing to the profitable shipping demand for our prune 
product, while ordinary dried, pitted plums are expensive in pro- 
duction and do not always command good prices. There is, how- 
ever, a large trade at the East in our fine plums in a fresh state. 
Some varieties stand shipment well, and are large, handsome and 
in some cases possessed of unique characters, resulting from Mr. 
Burbank's work with the Japanese species as will be noted later. 
Considerable shipments of fresh plums have been made from Cal- 
ifornia to England. The maximum in plum profits is much like 
that with other fruits, for L. W. Leak, a Placer County grower, 
reported in 1906 a net return of $759 from an acre of "Hungarian 
prunes." 

By choosing varieties ripening in succession, the plum season 
extends from May to December, thus enabling the California plum 
grower to strike the Eastern markets both early and late. It is 
on record, also, that second crop plums have ripened. In 1904 
Judge Leib, of San Jose, sent to Luther Burbank, on December 
1, ripe fruit from a tree which ripened its first crop on July 4 of 
the same year. 



* All prunes are plums, but all plums are not prunes. A prune is a plum which 
can be dried without the removal of the pit without fermenting: the result being a 
fleshy pulp with a high degree of sweetness. All plums which will not do this are 
not prunes, even though the word may appear in their California common names. 

t Found on prunus demissa, in Tosemite valley and in Coast range in San Mateo 
County, by Dr. H. W- Harkness, Report State Board of Horticulture, 1883, pp. 54, 55, 

309 



310 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



There is also a considerable demand for plums by the canners 
who do not use, however, the varieties in chief demand for ship- 
ping. 

LOCALITIES FOR THE PLUM 

The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. The 
trees are thrifty and profitable even from the immediate vicinity 
of the coast and in coast valleys, where the sea winds and fogs 
intrude, eastward across the great interior valleys, and upwards 
upon the sides of the Sierra Nevada. In the upper half of the 
State, at least, wherever there is sufficient moisture in the soil, 
good plums can be grown. The tree is quite hardy, but in situa- 
tions open to sweep of the winds there has been found to be decided 
advantage in belts of sheltering trees for protection. At some 
points subject to direct coast influences, there is sometimes loss 
by cracking of the fruit. It is seldom encountered in the interior val- 
ley, except near the rivers or in draws where the damp coast 
air makes its way through. It seems to be worst where there are 
marked differences in atmospheric humidity within short periods 
of time. Where the percentage is quite uniformly high or low 
there seems to be less trouble. Some years conditions usually 
restricted to more exposed coast situations prevail in the interior 
valley, and the result is unusual prevalence of mildew and other 
moist fungi and cracking of fruit also, though they have no rela- 
tion to each other except that the same conditions favor both. 
Only certain varieties are thus affected, and they can be avoided 
where the trouble is found to exist. 

It was for a long time held that southern California was not 
adapted to the growth of the plum, but the experience of the last 
few years has shown that the conclusion was too broad. The 
"French prune" demonstrated its success adjacent to the coast 
in Santa Barbara County, and elsewhere, in the low, rich lands of 
the Santa Ana Valley, of Orange County, in the interior at various 
points on the rim of the San Gabriel Valley, in Los Angeles 
County, notably at Pomona, and still farther inland in the San 
Bernardino Valley, but the Southern California prune product is 
small because the land and water can be more profitably used for 
other fruits. There is, however, difficulty in some dry uplands 
where the tree is shy in fruiting and subject to serious gumming; 
but this is encountered locally in all parts of the State. Irrigation 
does not always overcome these troubles, and yet, no doubt, the 
arrangement of proper moisture conditions is important. The 
tree should be helped to make one good growth and to ripen its 
wood in the fall. To have growth checked by drouth and a sec- 
ond start made later in the season is not desirable. 



VALUE OF HYBRID PLUMS 



311 



Still it must be admitted that prune planting in the interior, 
proceeding with such rapidity, has encountered some soils and 
situations in which bearing has not been altogether satisfactory. 
New planters should confer with older residents before making 
investments in prune planting in interior valleys and foot-hills. 

All the foregoing observations are based upon the behavior 
of plums of European origin; descendants of the prunus domestica. 
One of the grandest contributions to the extension of the range 
of the plum in California was the introduction of the Asiatic species, 
primus triflora and simoni. Varieties of these species directly intro- 
duced or locally developed by Burbank and others, have proved 
productive in places where the domestica varieties were abandoned 
as shy or sterile. To estimate the value of these varieties one has 
only to visit the home fruit gardens of southern California or in- 
spect the fruit-stands of Los Angeles which are continuous exhibits 
of fine specimens of these varieties in their seasons. Even in places 
where the domestica varieties are largely grown the Asiatic vari- 
eties are also prominent as is shown by the fact that the Wickson, a 
Burbank triflora-simoni hybrid, is the leading shipping plum of 
California, and shipping plums are chiefly grown in the central and 
northern regions of the State. Other notable Burbank plums of 
recent introduction will be included in the descriptions of varieties 
at the close of this chapter. 

SOILS AND STOCKS FOR THE PLUM 

With the plum, as with the apricot, the subject of soils and 
stocks are intimately related, but the whole matter has been won- 
derfully simplified by the experience of the last few years. This 
relief has come through the adoption of the myrobalan, or cherry 
plum {Primus myrobalana) as a general all-around stock for plums 
and prunes. Before this practice was taken up the effort to grow 
the plum on its own roots generally resulted in getting an orchard 
full of suckers, and to avoid this, plums were worked on peach 
roots wherever this root would succeed in the soil to be planted. 
But some varieties of plums do not take kindly to the peach, and 
then "double working" (putting first on the peach a plum which 
is known to take well and then on that plum wood the variety 
desired) was followed. The use of the myrobalan does away with 
the suckering nuisance and the need of double working. 

There was considerable discussion a few years ago as to what 
is the true myrobalan, and it must be acknowledged that some of 
the refined distinctions formerly claimed have been abandoned. 
Seedlings grown from the seed of the myrobalan vary as do other 
fruit seedlings, both in fruit and in foliage and habit of trees, and 
perhaps this fact has given rise to the distinction between "true" 
and "false" myrobalan, so called. Practice has proceeded without 



312 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



much reference to the discussion, and our nurserymen now have 
large, thrifty myrobalan trees from which they secure their seed 
supply. Growing- stock from myrobalan cuttings is but little prac- 
ticed. The myrobalan is now the accepted plum stock for Cali- 
fornia, except in light, alluvial, well drained soils, where for the 
French prune, peach, or almond may be preferred. . Though 
described by some authorities as a dwarfing stock, it is found to 
be sufficiently free growing in California to suit all purposes, and 
to form a good foundation for full standard trees, though the peach 
and almond roots in proper soils give a quicker and greater growth. 
Experience has shown that the myrobalan root thrives in this 
State both in low, moist, valley lands, in comparatively dry lands, 
and in stiff upland soils. 

In som.e soils especially adapted to the peach, peach roots are 
preferred as stock for the French prune, but, as already said, all 
plums can not be worked directly on the peach root, the Robe de 
Sergeant, Columbia, Yellow Egg, Washington, and Sugar Prune 
for example. Sometimes the bud or scion may make a large 
growth, but the two woods do not unite, and the trees break ofif 
sooner or later. 

Some work the plum on the apricot root, and report success 
when the soil suits the apricot root, and the gophers do not get at 
it. But it sometimes happens that the French prune parts from 
.the apricot root even after growing some time upon it. There are, 
however, instances of the French prune thriving, and, apparently 
making good union with the apricot root and some of the softer 
wood varieties, like the Sugar Prune, take kindly to it. 

Some plums do well on the almond root and some do not. The 
French prune succeeds admirably both when worked on young 
almond stocks and top grafted in old almond trees. Success is 
also reported with the Felenberg on the almond. But the almond 
root is suited especially for warm, dry soils. Excellent results 
from the use of almond stock are reported from the interior valley 
and the Sierra foot-hills. 

Propagating by Sprouts. — The French practice of growing cer- 
tain varieties of the plum by means of sprouts from the base of 
old trees has been successfully followed in this State by Felix 
Gillet, of Nevada City, and was strongly commended by him as 
securing a tree which will not gum, which is one of the reasons 
why the same practice prevails in France. Sprouts growing at 
the foot of old and large trees, and but few are found to each 
tree, are taken off and planted close together in a bed to make them 
root well, and the ensuing spring planted in nursery rows, where 
they are trained like any other trees, and transplanted where to 
remain, when branched. For this method it is necessary that 
the parent tree should be upon its own roots, else one is apt to 



PRUNING THE PRUNE 



313 



get suckers from a wild stock. Sprout-grown trees can not, how- 
ever, be defended unless some special point like that claimed by 
Mr. Gillet can be attained by them. 

PLANTING AND PRUNING 

As with other trees, there is difference of opinion as to the 
best distance apart for plum trees. The present tendency is 
toward wider planting; not nearer than twenty feet is the usual 
advice, and on rich land, twenty-two or twenty-four feet is better. 

The plum, in California, is a most rapid grower; six to ten 
feet from the bud or graft in a season, and about as much after 
the first winter's cutting back, is not at all unusual. At this rate 
of progress, then the tree soon runs up and away, in a spindling, 
sprawling fashion, unless severely cut back for the first few years. 
Neglected trees of some varieties show long, streaming branches, 
arching outward, and exposing the bark to sunburn (to which 
it is very sensitive)," breaking the tree to pieces as the fruit gets 
weight, and, even if supported by props, breaking off at the bear- 
ing of the prop. This condition of the tree can only be obviated 
by low heading and moderate cutting back each year, with due 
regard to limiting the amount of bearing wood to get large fruit. 
For such plum varieties the suggestions on forming the tree and 
subsequent treatment in the chapter on pruning will be found help- 
ful. This reference to repressive treatment for brittle-wood plums 
is emphasized by experience with the Sugar Prune of which 
Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill says : 

"The sugar prune is a great bearer, but the tree must receive very different 
pruning from that given the French prune. The annual growth must be short- 
ened in every winter from one-half to two-thirds, and all laterals and fruit 
spurs must be cut back at every pruning. Of course, judicious thinning out 
of wood also needed. This will result in a very large, showy product for long- 
distance shipments, as fresh fruits, which have brought satisfactory returns." 

Pruning the French Prune. — Growers of the French prune, and 
other varieties of similar growth of strong and pliable wood, have 
reached substantial agreement as to the best practice. The old 
method of cutting back bearing trees has been abandoned. Cutting 
back the young tree to secure sufficient low branching is followed 
by thinning of shoots from this low head so that the tree shall 
not become too dense or carry too much bearing wood. The 
strength in the head depends upon proper spacing and arrange- 
ment of the branches as insisted upon in the chapter on pruning; 
and large, well-ripened fruit, which is essential to successful and 
profitable drying, is conditioned upon avoiding excess of branches 
and admission of sufficient light to the tree. 

A rather longer central stem is retained than in the old style, 
and a central stem throughout is admissible if one prefers it and 



314 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



-I s\ \U'/' M// 








• Tyf"rs. C^t, ^( 



^ ,r t ^ -tf^ . . "f^- ^ - 'Tj,'^ 




^ 



Young and old French Prune trees, never pruned and assuming natural form. 

does not desire to dispense with it as the first step toward secur- 
ing a more open tree. Some retain the longer stem at planting, 
others cut back to eighteen inches, develop three side branches 
upon that and train the branch from the top bud for a lengthen- 
ing of the stem, and bring out more branches upon that the second 
year, and then dispense with its farther extension. The engravings 
on page 316 show this method of developing the head of a youngs 
French prune. The tree was cut back as planting in orchard to 
a straight switch about eighteen inches high. At the end of the 
first summer this showed the form in the first picture, which is 
marked for the first winter pruning. The second engraving shows 
the branching developed from this during the second summer's 
growth, also marked to prune away some undesirable branches. 
Upon a tree of this form farther cutting back is not desirable as it 
has enough well-placed branches to form the tree. 

How long cutting back shall continue depends partly upon the 
locality and partly upon the notion of the owner. In interior • 
localities the tree grows with great rapidity and branches more 



PRUNING THE PRUNE 



315 










y^^^ ^'Mmi/r 









- * 




foung and old French Prune trees rationally pruned for number and spacing of branches. 



freely. During the third summer it will bear some fruit if not cut 
back the previous winter and, where growth is so rapid, there is 
little danger of injuring the tree by early bearing. In the coast 
valleys cutting back may continue another year, and fruiting be 
thus postponed a year to get another summer's freer wood growth. 
Though cutting back may properly cease early with the French 
prune, it is a great mistake to allow the trees to go unpruned. 
Remove of defective wood, prevention of branch crowding and 
overbearing are of the highest importance, as insisted upon in the 
chapter on pruning. 

Special Study of Varieties in Pruning. — The points just ad- 
vanced apply especially to the management of the French prune. 
In addition to what has been already said about the Sugar prune, 
the grower must be exhorted to study the habit of the variety he 
has to deal with. The general rules for handling trees with differ- 
ent habits of growth are applicable to a certain extent to the plum. 
When to apply a rule or make an exception must be learned by 



316 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



observation and experience. Some plums, like the Silver prune, 
have something of the growth habit of the peach, and this is also 
very true of some of the Japanese varieties. Cutting back in winter 
and pinching in summer are both useful facts in securing lower 
branching and low-growing fruit spurs. 





Pruning after first summer's 
growth in orchard. 



Growth during second summer 
in orchard. 



Grafting the Plum. — The plum has been grafted and regrafted 
in the constant effort to secure varieties promising superiority in 
various directions. Within the scope of their affinities plums graft 
easily by common top-grafting methods, and if the roots are strong 
the new growth is so rapid as to need special attention. Mr. 
Luther Bowers gives these hints about pruning such growths : 
"From practical experience I have found out that the Sugar prune 
wood should only be summer pruned and only cut while the shoots 
are tender, or so soft that the top can be pinched out; this will 
cause the top to be well branched and this should be done at least 
twice during the first year of the graft. This system will avoid 
long, slender limbs. After a graft is two years old I would never 
cut the top off of a limb. If a tree gets too thick a top, I would 
cut out some of the main branches." 



CALIFORNIA PRUNE PROBLE^VtS 017 

THE PLUMCOTS 

One of the most striking- achievements of Mr. Burbank from 
the fruit grower's point of view is the cross of the plum and the 
apricot, which he has very fitly named the "plumcot." He has 
combined in a single fruit enough of the diverse characters of 
two fruits to that the ordinary observer can recognize the com- 
bination clearly and distinguish the gift of each to it. Mr. Bur- 
bank has secured several such crosses, the first of which to be 
made public is the "Rutland," introduced by Mr. George C. Roed- 
ing in 1907. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary apricot 
with a deep purple velvety skin. One of its striking features 
is its brilliant red flesh possessed of a strong sub-acid flavor 
rendering it suitable for cooking, jellies and jams, and it is in 
good demand for such uses. When fully ripe, it is an excellent 
dessert fruit possessing an apricot-plum flavor. Obviously the 
amalgamation of the apricot and the plum must produce a fruit 
unique m character, hence its economic value is a matter still 
largely to be determined by its development and the exploitation 
of its uses. 

HOW A PRUNE QUEST DISTURBED THE PLUM 
FAMILY IN CALIFORNIA 

Referring to the distinction between plums and prunes cited 
at the opening of this chapter, and to the extent and methods of 
the great prune industry of the State which will appear later, in 
Part Eight of this work, it may be stated here that the Cali- 
fornia prune product was obviously undertaken in emulation of 
the globe-trotting French prune, which had attained position as 
the leading commercial dried fruit of the world long before Cal- 
ifornia arose on the horticultural horizon. Naturally, French 
settlers in California bethought themselves of transplanting this 
great industry in their new home, and Mr. Louis Pellier intro- 
duced scions from the district of Agen to his place near San 
Jose in 1856. The product was good, and planting for a large 
output was entered upon, though slowly at first. There was 
disappointment over the fact that, while all fruits came sur- 
prisingly large in California, the dried prunes were smaller than 
the great French prunes in cartons and cannisters which sold 
for great prices. Had we secured the true French prune : did 
they not have larger ones which they were holding back from 
us? This was the great question of five decades ago. Some 
nurserymen of that day had spirits of enterprise larger than 
their consciences. If the people demand larger prunes they 
must have them, surely. Because of the small average size of 
the prunes of Pellier's introduction, they christened that variety 
"petite prune d'Agen," which was subsequently corrupted into 



318 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



"petty prune" — a free translation and a mispronunciation at the 
same time, for a prune which seemed to be too small and inferior. 
The people must have something large, and they happened to 
mix a little German into the title which they manufactured, and 
offered trees of the "gros prune d'Agen." When shown that if 
the French had such fruit it would probably be called "grande" 
and not "gros," because the French word "gros" is not a compli- 
mentary term, the propagators simply changed their geographical 
base and declared: "This immense prune, just what you need 
to beat the French, is really German, and if you desire you may 
call it Hungarian prune." It of course did not matter much 
what it was called, because it did not come from either France 
or Hungary, but was the fine, old, large, light red, English plum, 
properly called Pond's Seedling, re-christened in California to 
meet a long-felt want. But it did not meet such a want; it would 
not dry sweet nor fleshy, but became merely a skin and pit, with 
a sour streak between. Still the question persisted : Have we the 
true French prune? It was definitely settled by the late W. B. 
West of Stockton, who visited France in 1878, and after close 
examination of the trees, announced that the variety grown in 
California was really the prune d'Agen, and that we had made no 
mistake so far as getting the main standard variety of French prune 
was concerned. 

But still we needed a variety which would run more to large 
sizes, and how to get it, with sweetness and flesh, characters 
which would resemble the best French product, was, and even 
now is, still a question. One of the early introductions to meet 
this end is now generally known as Robe de Sergeant. Here 
again confusion attends the name. Robe de Sergeant is one of 
the synonyms of prune d'Agen, and yet the fruit we secured 
was different. Much discussion was given to the elucidation of 
this problem, and the conclusion seemed to be that the variety 
is grown in France, but in another district, and is generally con- 
sidered inferior to the prune d'Agen. Still it runs larger, and 
has sold well, even though of distinctly different quality, and 
would probably have cut a much larger figure in California 
prune production if it had shown itself to be more free and reg- 
ular in bearing. The same is true of the "prune d'ente, or 
Imperial epineuse," which has been quite widely planted, but 
because of shy bearing, especially when attacked by the thrips, 
as discussed upon another page of this book, and because of the 
difficulty in drying such a large prune which ripens rather late, 
this variety, of which so much was expected, has fallen into dis- 
favor, and many which were grafted in have been grafted out 
again. Other introductions made much earlier, like the German 
and Italian, also fell out of the race very early, for shy bearing 
and for different flesh characters. Although the latter leads in 



PLUMS WHICH ARE NOT PRUNES 



319 



Oregon and other States north of us, it is out of California cal- 
culations. The conclusion of the whole matter now is that we 
have never secured from abroad a better than the one -which 
came 50 years ago — the true prune d'Agen. We have learned 
to grow it better, to seek places where it comes larger and in 
full quality; to use irrigation when it is needed by the tree to do 
its best; to guard against overbearing by reducing the amount 
of bearing wood and excessive branching; to strengthen the soil 
by fertilization, and to grade the fruit into sizes which commend 
themselves to different demands. Here we are again, doing our 
main business at the Old stand, but knowing how to do it better. 
Have we anything more to expect? Probably nothing from old 
varieties, for we have prospected them all from a prune-making 
point of view, taking Coe's Golden Drop plum, or its seedling, 
for the Silver Prune, and canceling all others as possibly good 
plums for various uses, but not for prunes. 

Probably our only expectation lies along the line of plant 
breeding, although nothing to supplant the prune d'Agen has 
yet been attained. The Giant prune is a large red plum ; several 
Oregon prunes are simply large red plums. The standard of 
sugar in the prune d'Agen as grown in California is from 15 to 
23 per cent of sugar in the fresh juice, according to degree of 
ripeness and localities in which the fruit is grown. The sugar 
in Pond's Seedling and in the large red plums just named is less 
than 10 per cent — sometimes very much less. But percentage 
of sugar in the juice is not the whole story; there are tissue or 
flesh characters which are essential also. Mr. Burbank's Sugar 
prune answers the sugar requirement; it is a free bearer and 
early ripening variety, and it dries easily though large; but it 
has not the fine grain nor distinctive flavor of the prune d'Agen, 
and it becomes a good plum for shipping and possibly for other 
plum purposes. But Mr. Burbank has many of the plum family 
in training, and it would not be surprising if he should announce 
at any time a variety educated fully up to the very definite Cali- 
fornia requirements, which he fully understands. Others are 
also working at the problem, and the next generation of California 
prune growers may attain what the last and present have striven 
for. The most promising Hne at the present time is the search 
for better types of the Prune d'Agen which are found here and 
there, arising from natural variation. Mr. Leonard Coates of 
Morgan Hill, is giving particular attention to this subject. 

POLLINATION OF PLUMS 

The shy bearing of certain plums is probably due to lack of 
pollination, either through the self-sterility of the variety or 
lack of acceptable pollinating agencies. Bearing can be induced 
in many cases, no doubt, by either planting or grafting-in of 



320 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



effective pollinating varieties. But this is not always profitable. 
For instance, there are many instances proving that the Tragedy 
can be brought to greater bearing by the presence of Clyman, 
but an early variety like the Clyman is not worth growing for 
sale in a late district, though in an early district both are valuable 
as shipping plums and should be planted together. The pollina- 
tion of plums has not been given as much attention as of other 
fruits. 



Plums and Prunes approved by California growers 



VARIETIES. 

Abundance 

Agen, Prune d'.... 

Bradshaw 

Burbank 

Chabot 

Climax 

Clyman 

Coe's Late Red.... 

Columbia 

Damson 

Diamond 

Duane Purple 

German Prune . . . . 

Giant 

Golden Drop, Coe's. 

Golden Prune 

Grand Duke 

Green Gage 

Hale 

Imperial Epineuse 

Imperial Gage 

Italian Prune 

Jefferson 

Kelsey 

Peach 

Pond (Hungarian) 

Red June 

Robe de Sergeant.. 

Royal Hative 

Satsuma 

Silver 

Simon 

Sugar 

Tragedy 

Wasliington 

Wickson 

Y.ellow Egg 



Upper 


Central 


Interior 


Mountain 


coast 


coast 


Valley and 


valleys and Southern 


i'alleys. 


valleys. 


foot-hills. 


plateau. California. 






* 


** 


** 


** 


** 


** ** 


* 


* 


* 


** 


* 


* 


** 


* ** 
* 




* 


** 
* 




** 


* 


* 


** * 


* 


* 


* 
** 


* ** 




* 


** 


* 


* 


* 


** 


* 




* 


* 


* 


** 


** 


* 


** 


* 


« 




* 




* 


** 






* 


* 


* * 
** 


* 


** 


* 
* 




* 


* 


* 


* 


* ■ 


** 


* 




. * 


** 


** 


** ** 


* 


* 


** 


* 


* 


** 


** 


*« * 




* 


** 


* 




** 


** 








** 


* 


* 


* 


* 


** 


* 


* 


* 








** 


** 


* 


** 


** 






* 


** 




* 


** 


* 


* * 


* 


** 


** 


* ** 


* 


** 


** 


** 



* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
** Most highly commended. 



POPULAR PLUMS 321 

VARIETIES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES 

As with other fruits, comparatively few varieties of the plum 
are largely grown in California, and the list is continually being 
reduced. The following tabulation is the result of a very wide 
inquiry made during the year 1907: 

Simon (Pruniis Siiiioni). — Medium to large, roundish, flattened, with cavi- 
ties at base and apex ; brick red, small yellow spots ; stalk stout and short ; 
flesh yellow, adhering to flattened pit ; largely grown for shipment in early 
interior regions where it has good quality ; lacks flavor and cracks badly near 
the coast. 

Climax (Burbank) .—Large ; very early; heart-shaped; deep red; flesh yel- 
low. Popular for shipping in places where it does not crack badly. 

Clynian (California seedling introduced by Leonard Coates). — Large, round- 
ish oblong, flattened suture indistinct; mottled reddish purple, beautiful blue 
bloom ; freestone ; flesh firm, dry and sweet ; prolific ; the leading early plum 
for shipment. 

Red June (Japanese). — Medium to large, deep red flesh light yellow, firm, 
good quality. The best of the early Japanese plums. 

Tragedy (California seedling). — Medium to large, suture shallow, wide and 
extending beyond apex ; dark purple ; flesh yellowish green, sweet and well 
flavored; freestone. Very valuable for shipping from early regions in all parts 
of the State. 

Abundance (Japanese) ; syns. Ycllozv-flcshcd Botan, Llikado of Hinclay. — 
Large, globular with point at apex ; cherry color covered with white bloom ; 
flesh yellow, juicy and rich. Popular for shipment from early regions. 

California Red (California seedling) .—Introduced by J. T. Bogue, of M.arys- 
ville. Large, light red, firm flesh and small pit. A good shipping plum. 

Peach (French, prune peche). — Very large loundish oblate, regular, flat- 
tened at ends ; suture distinct, shallow ; color varying from salmon to light 
brownish red ; stalk very short, cavity narrow, shallow, flesh rather coarse, 
juicy, sprightly, free from the nearly round, very flat, much furrowed stone; 
shoots smooth. A prominent variety for early eastern shipment. 

Royalc Native (French).— Medium roundish, slightly wider at base; light 
purple", stalk half an inch long, stout, scarcely sunk; flesh amber yellow, with 
rich, high flavor, nearly free from the small, flattened, ovate stone; shoot! 
very downy. Grown as an early market plum and for eastern shipment. 

BradshaiiK — Large, obovate, with obtuse suture on one side, sometimes with 
very slight neck ; dark purple, with light blue bloom ; stalk three-fourths inch 
long ; cavity narrow ; flesh a little coarse, becoming light brownish purple, at 
first adhering, but becoming nearly free when fully ripe; juicy, good, slightly 
acid ; tree vigorous ; shoots purple, smooth. Reported from Sacramento county 
as blooming late and seldom injured by frost. Not in high favor. 

Green Gage (French). — Rather small, round; suture faint green, becoming 
yellowish green, usually with reddish brown dots and network at base ; stalk 
half to three- fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh pale green, melting, juicy, ex- 
ceedingly rich, and flavor excellent ; shoots smooth. 

Burbank.- — Tree imported from Japan by Luther Burbank. Named "Bur- 
bank" by Professor Van Deman. Tree usually vigorous, with strong, upright 
shoots, and large, rather broad leaves ; comes into bearing very early. Almost 
globular, being five and a half inches around horizontally, and flve and 
five-eighths inches around vertically ; rich cherry red, slightly mottled with yel- 
low and freely dotted with same tint; flesh deep yellow, juicy, very sweet, and of 
fine, somewhat peculiar, but very agreeable flavor ; pit is very small, three- 
fourths by a trifle over half an inch in diameter. 

Duane's Purple (New York). — Very large, oblong oval, longer on one side; 
slightly narrowed towards the stalk ; reddish purple, bloom lilac ; stalk three- 
fourths inch ; slender ; cavity narrow flesh juicy, moderately sweet, and mod- 



322 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



erate ' flavor, mostly adhering to stone ; shoots very dowrny and leaves large 
and downy beneath. 

Washington (New York). — Very large, roundish oval, suture obscure, dis- 
tinct at base ; yellowish green, faintly marbled, often with pale red blush ; 
stalk half to three-fourths inch ; slightly downy ; cavity wide, shallow ; flesh 
rather firm, sweet, mild, very rich and lucious, free from the pointed stone ; 
shoots downy ; very vigorous. 




Burbank's Wickson Plum. 



Wickson. — A crossbred by Luther Burbank ; form suggests the Kelsey, but 
more symmetrical ; in ripening, the color develops from a deep cherry red down 
to a rich claret as full ripeness is attained. The color is solid and uniform. 
The flesh is of amber tint, very juicy and translucent; the pit is small and 
shapely, the flavor is striking and agreeable, but likely to be deficient near 
the coast. The most popular shipping plum in the State. 

Yellow Egg; syns. White Egg, White Magnum Bonuni (English). — Very 
large, oval, narrow at ends, necked at base, suture distinct ; stalk one inch, 
not sunk, surrounded by fleshy ring at insertion ; light yellow, bloom thin, 
white, flesh firm, rather acid until fully ripe, and then sweet, adheres to the 
pointed stone. 

Jefferson (New York). — Large, oval, base slightly narrowed, suture slight; 
greenish yellow, becoming golden, with reddish cheek; bloom thin, white; stalk 
one inch, but little sunk or not at all ; flesh rich yellow, very rich, juicy, high 
flavored and luscious, adheres partly to its long, pointed stone ; shoots smooth; 
tree a slow grower, but productive. 

Columbia (New York). — Very large, nearly globular, one side slightly 
larger ; brownish purple, reddish brown where much shaded, with many fawn- 
colored dots; bloom blue, copious; stalk one inch, rather stout; cavity small; 
flesh orange, very rich and sweet, free from the stone, which is very small 
and compressed. Shoots downy, stout, blunt, spreading; leaves nearly round. 

Satsuma; syn. Blood Plum of Satsuina. — Litroduced and first fruited in this 
country by Luther - Burbank, of Santa Rosa. Described by Prof. H. E. Van 
Deman, LT. S. Pomologist, as follows ; "Leaves more lanceolate than those 



POPULAR PLUMS 323 

of Kelsey; fruit averages about two and a quarter inches in diameter, nearly 
round, and but slightly sutured on one side ; surface dark red, under a thick 
bloom ; dots rather conspicuous and numerous ; flesh dark purplish red, which 
has caused the name of 'Blood Plum of Satsuma' to be given by some; stone 
very small and pointed." Chiefly grown in Southern California. 

Red Magnum Boiiuin syn. Red Egg. — Large, oval, tapering to the stalk; 
suture strong, one side swollen ; deep red in the sun ; slight bloom ; stalk one 
inch, slender, cavity narrow ; flesh greenish, coarse, subacid ; shoots smooth. 

Imperial Gage (New York). — Medivun size, oval, suture distinct; stalk 
three-fourths inch, slightly hairy, evenly sunk ; green, slightly tinged vvith 
yellow, with marbled green stripes; bloom copious and white; flesh greenish, 
juicy, melting, rich, and delicious, usually free from the oval, pointed stone; 
tree very vigorous and productive ; shoots long upright, slightly downy ; leaves 
with slight shade of blue. A popular canning variety. 

Damson (English). — Small, roundish oval; purple, with thick blue bloom; 
melting, juicy, subacid. 

German Prune {Common Quetsche, Germany). — "This name has been 
applied in this State to numerous plums and prunes which are sold under it. 
The fruit of the true German prune is long oval, and swollen on one side; 
skin purple, with thick blue bloom ; flesh firm, green, sweet, with a peculiar 
pleasant flavor; separates readily from the stone." — John Rock. Complaint 
is made in many localities of the tendency of the variety to drop before ripen- 
ing, almost the whole crop sometimes dropping. 

Kelsey Japan. — Trees brought from Japan by the late Mr. Hough, of Vaca- 
ville, in 1870, and purchased by the late John Kelsey, of Berkeley, who propa- 
gated and fruited them for several years. First wide distribution was made 
by W. P. Hammon & Co., in 1874, who named the fruit after Mr. Kelsey. 
The following description is by H. E. Van Deman, U. S. Pomologist, from 
California and Florida specimens : "Tree upright in growth, leaves narrow, 
twigs brownish gray. Fruit from one and a half to two and a half inches 
diameter, heart-shaped, with a distinct suture on one side from stem to 
apex; stem is short, and set in a depression at the larger end; colors mixed 
yellow and purple, which vary in depth, Init rarely make a brilliant appear- 
ance, covered with a bloom ; flesh yellow, very firm, and clings to the stone, 
which is rather small, and nearly always partly surrounded by a cavity ; when 
fully ripe the quality is very good." Very widely grown ; is in less favor 
than formerly in interior valleys where color is not well developed. Where 
the fruit is of good color it is profitable for shipping and is highly regarded 
everywhere for domestic use. 

Quackenbos (New York). — Large, oblong oval; deep purple; suture faint; 
stalk short, slightly sunk ; slightly coarse, sprightly, sweet and subacid ; partly 
freestone. 

Victoria (English). — Large, obovate, suture distinct; color a fine light red- 
dish purple ; stem half inch, cavity rather deep and narrow ; flesh yellow, pleas- 
ant ; clingstone ; next to Pond's Seedling in size, beauty and productiveness. 

Hungarian Prune; English Pond's Seedling; Gros Prune d'Agcn (English). 
— This variety was brought to San Jose probably about 1856, and in some unac- 
countable way was first contrasted with the French prune and called the 
"great prune of Agen ;" afterwards, also in a mysterious way, it took the 
name "Hungarian prune." It is still marketed by these names both here 
and at the East. The true name is English Pond's Seedling. Fruit very 
large, ovate, slightly tapering to stalk ; skin thick, reddish violet, with numer- 
ous brown dots, and covered with handsome bloom; rather coarse, juicy, 
sweet ; a very showy fruit ; tree a strong grower and prolific bearer ; fruit 
has a tendency to double ; sells well in local and distant markets on its style 
and is largely grown. 

Giant. — Burbank seedling; very large, dark crimson upon yellow ground; 
flesh yellow, flavor good ; freestone. A shipping plum, disappointing as a 
drying plum. 



324 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Splendor. — Burbank seedling; medium size but larger than French prune; 
clear red, drying dark, does not shake from the tree ; earlier than French prune. 

Sugar. — Burbank seedling, introduced in 1898; large and sweet; sugar in 
fresh fruit 23.92 per cent; not a good prune but valuable for shipping; oval, 
slightly flattened ; dark purple with thick white bloom ; freestone. 

Imperial Epineuse 33^1. Chirac Mammoth. — Introduced in 1884 by Felix 
Gillet and in 1886 by John Rock. Described by Mr. Rock as follows : "Uni- 
formly large size, reddish or light purple, thin skin, sweet and high flavor." 
Described by Mr. Gillet: "Uniformly large, more oval than the French 
prune ; nearly of the same color but somewhat lighter or reddish purple ; earlier 
than the French and with thinner skin." Fruit grown by Mr. Rock analyzed 
at the State University in 1898, showed 20.4 per cent of sugar against 18.53 
per cent average of three analyses of French prune. Largely planted and 
grafted in, in the Santa Clara Valley, as a drying prune but irregular in 
bearing. 

There has been quite widely planted another prune called Imperial which 
is very inferior in sugar content and likely to prove much less satisfactory. 




Robe de Sergeant. 



Prune d'Agen. 



Prune d' Agen; syn. Petite Prune d' Agcn; French Prune, etc. — This is 
the drying prune at present most widely grown in this State. It is described 
by John Rock as follows : "Medium-sized, egg-shaped, violet purple, very 
sweet, rich and sugary ; very prolific bearer." The first trees of the kind 
were grown by Louis Pellier, at San Jose, about the year 1857, the graft 
having been brought from France by his brother in December, 1856. The 
identity of this variety (which was first largely grown in the neighborhood 
of San Jose) with the variety chiefly grown in the French district tributary 
to Agen, was first announced by W. B. West, of Stockton, in the year 1878, 
during his visit to France. 

Robe de Sergeant. — Though this term is .given in Downing as a synonym 
of Prune d'Agen, and seems also to be in French a synonym for the d'Ente 



BURBANK'S NEWER PLUMS 095 

prunes; another prune grown in this State from an importation by John 
Rock, is quite distinct from the foregoing. Mr. Rock descriljes the variety 
as follows : "Fruit medium size, oval ; skin deep purple, approaching black, 
and covered with a thick blue bloom ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, and well- 
fiavored, sugary, rich and delicious, slightly adhering to the stone." This 
variety makes a larger, darker-colored dried prune than the Prune d'Agen, 
and has sold in some cases at a higher price. It has recently been in disfavor 
in coast valleys for defective bearing, but is more satisfactory at some interior 
points. 

Bulgarian. — "An undetermined variety grown under this name, chiefly in 
the vicinity of Haywards,_ Alameda County ; above medium size ; almost round ; 
dark purple ; sweet and rich, with pleasant acid flavor ; tree a vigorous grower, 
and an early, regular and profuse bearer." — John Rock. 

Coe's Golden Drop (English). — Very large, oval, suture distinct, one side 
more enlarged, necked; light yellow, often dotted red to the sun; stalk three- 
fourths inch, rather stifif; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and rich, closely adher- 
ing to the pointed stone; shoots smooth, rather glossy. A standard late variety 
for canning. 

Silver Prune (Oregon). — Originated with W. H. Prettyman, who says: 
"It is a seedhng from Coe's Golden Drop, which it much resembles, but it 
is much_ more productive." Profitable as a bleached prune, but defective in 
bearing in some California districts. A red variety by bud variation is reported 
by Mr. J. G. Grundel of Alma. 

Golden Prune. — Originated from seed of Italian prune by Seth Lewelling, 
of Milwaukee, Oregon, and described by him as larger than Italian ; light 
golden color ; exquisite flavor ; dries beautifully. 

Bavay's' Green Gage; syn. Reine Claude de Bavay (French). — Large, round 
oval, greenish yellow, spotted with red, with small violet-colored longitudinal 
veins; flesh rather firm, juicy, sugary, rich, of fine quality, adhering slightly 
to the stone ; shoots smooth, leaves roundish, shining ; a free-grower and very 
productive. 

Ickworth Imperatrice (English). — Large to medium, obovate, purple, with 
irregular streaks of fawn color ; stalk medium ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, 
juicy, rich, mostly adhering to the rather small stone ; shoots smooth ; very 
late, hangs long on the tree, and keeps well; endures long shipment well. 

Fellenberg, syns. Large German Prune, Swiss Prune, Italian Prune. — 
Medium size, oval, pointed and tapering at both ends ; suture small, distinct ; 
dark purple, with dark blue bloom ; stalk one inch, scarcely sunk ; flesh green- 
ish yellow, juicy, sweet, delicious, parts from the stone; tree a free grower 
and very productive; late, excellent for drying. But little grown in California, 
but largely in Oregon. 

Coe's Late Red, syn. Red St. Martin. — Size medium, roundish, suture 
distinct on one side ; skin light purplish red, or dark red ; bloom thin, blue ; 
stalk three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh rather firm, crisp, rich, vinous; 
very late, shoots downy. 

LUTHER BURBANK'S NEWER VARIETIES 

Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, has not only produced the 
leading shipping plum of California, as already stated, but he 
has six others in the list of twenty varieties which are chiefly 
grown as plums and prunes. During the last few years he has 
introduced many other varieties not included in the foregoing 
list, which possess striking characters and some of which will 
become famous. They must, however, endure the test of trial 
and await later credit. Seedlings by other growers are also under- 
going a similar ordeal. 



326 



CALIS^ORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Two of Mr. Burbank's recent creations, introduced by Mr. 
George C. Roeding', are of striking characters, and are described 
as follows : 

Santa Rosa. — "It is a fine grower, the wood is very tough and the limbs 
will not break. It is a sure, regular bearer and bears always most abundantly. 
It does not have any off years. The fruit runs remarkably fine, even in size, 
and astonishingly smooth and clear of any defects. It is beautiful, delicious 
and a very fine carrier to Eastern markets. It will keep well in hot weather 
for a week after it is ripe, so there is no occasion to pick it half ripe in order 
to ship. I intend to plant it very largely myself, and to the exclusion of all 
other shipping plums." — 5. F. Lcib. 

Formosa. — "Unusually large, thick, healthy, light green foliage; strong, 
hard, wiry wood ; blooms with the Burbank and Abundance, and always 
escapes late spring frosts, and always bears profusely even when continuous 
rainy weather prevents full pollination in most other plums. No disease has 
ever found lodgment with Formosa. The fruit is of uniform size, averaging 
about six inches in circumference one way by eight the other. Fruit yellow 
with a pale bloom until nearly ripe, turning to a clear rich red. Flesh pale 
yellow, unusually firm, sweet, rich, delicious, with a delightful apricot flavor, 
nearly freestone. Formosa has been very thoroughly tested for its keeping 
qualities, which are unequaled except by Santa Rosa, Wickson, Burbank, and 
a few others." — Luther Burbank. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
THE QUINCE 

The quince enjoys California conditions to the utmost, and 
rewards the grower with large crops of very large and beautiful 
fruit. A quince weighing a pound is no curiosity, and it is unlikely 
that any city of the world can show such fine quinces at such 
low prices as San Francisco. The lesson from this fact is that 
the fineness of the fruit, and the evident adaptation of the State 
to its growth, should not alone be considered by the planter. 
The local consumption of quinces is naturally small, and it is 
chiefly for home preserving and jelly making. The commercial 
jelly makers use apple juice as the basis of nearly all their jellies, 
only using a little quince for flavoring, and some housewives 
follow the same course. The hope for profitable sale of the fruit 
in large quantities must therefore rest on distant markets, and 
though those well acquainted with the growth and sale of the fruit 
in the cities of the Mississippi Valley, have predicted a great 
demand for the California quince in that territory, experiences 
of shippers thus far have been varied, and not such as to induce 
the extension of our quince production, as present at least. 

But though the quince in California has at present narrow com- 
mercial limitations, a few trees should find a place in every orchard, 
for family use or local sale. 

CULTURE OF THE QUINCE 

The quince is readily grown from cuttings. Take good-sized 
shoots of well-matured wood of the current year's growth, after 
the leaves drop in the fall, and set out at once in nursery row in 
moist, alluvial soil, or in any loose soil which is well drained 
and can be kept moist enough by cultivation or irrigation. 

Quinces are planted at all distances apart, and are grown either 
as bushes or trees. Undoubtedly the best way is to plant about 
fourteen or sixteen feet apart, and prune into low standard tree 
form. This can be done much as already advised for other fruit 
trees. An annual cutting back of about half of the new growth, 
while forming the tree, will strengthen the trunk and limbs and 
prevent the running out of long leaders, which droop to the 
ground on all sides when laden with fruit, and are often broken 
by the weight and the wind. Owing to the disposition of the 
quince to throw out several small shoots at a single point, it is 
advisable, when forming the tree, to remove all buds but one, 

327 



328 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

just as the growth is starting. This will give one good, strong 
branch where it may be needed, instead of several weak ones. 
Pinching off shoots which start out too vigorously, or at unde- 
sirable points is, of course, advisable. 

Soils for the Quince. — As the quince grows naturally in moist, 
though not wet lands, many persons think it always does best 
in springy ground or along the banks of rivulets ; but though 
moist soils are preferable to dry, such positions are not essential 
to obtaining large crops of fine fruit. In fact, the quince, like 
most fruit trees, prefers a well-drained location, and does best 
on a soil which can be freely worked. It thrives when fanned 
by the ocean breeze and does fairly well in the interior, providing 
it has moisture in the soil, and in some situations will doubtless 
require summer irrigation. 

VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE 

Though notably all varieties of the quince are introduced by 
our nurserymen and carried by them in small stock, most plan- 
tations are of the "apple" or "orange" variety. The following 
may be enumerated, however, as growing in this State : 

Apple or Orange. — Large; bright yellow; the best. August and September. 

Rca's Alaimnoth. — A very large and fine variety of the Orange quince; a 
strong grower and very productive. 

Smyrna. — Introduced from Smyrna in 1897 by George C. Roeding of Fresno ; 
large, lemon yellow, handsome, tender and delicious after cooking ; keeps well ; 
tree a strong grower, with heavy foliage. 

Pineapple. — Originated by Luther Burbank and distributed by him in 1899 ; 
the result of a long effort to secure a quince which would cook tender like an 
apple. The name comes from its flavor, which is suggestive of the pineapple. 
Resembles Orange quince but is smoother and more globular. 

Portugal. — Very large, and fine flavor, turns a fine purple or deep crimson 
when cooked. 

The Chinese Quince. — A most extraordinary fruit, oblong, of immense size, 
often weighing from two to two and one-half pounds ; growth rapid and distinct. 

West's Maniiiwtli. — Originated by W. B. West, of Stockton, from seed received 
from Boston in 1853; of the Orange quince family; round; clear yellow; very 
large; fine flavor and for the class a very good keeper. 

Champion. — Fruit very large, fair and handsome; tree very productive, sur- 
passing any other variety in this respect ; bears abundantly when young ; flesh 
cooks as tender as an apple, and without hard spots or cores ; flavor delicate, 
imparting an exquisite quince taste and odor to any fruit with which it is cooked. 



PART FOUR— THE GRAPE 

CHAPTER XXV 



THE GRAPE INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA 

The grape grows in all parts of California, from near sea level 
on the coast to an elevation of 5000 feet or more on the mountains. 
It is contented, too, with nearly all fertile soils, from the deep 
valley loams, where the great fat, firm-fleshed grapes are grown 
for raisin and table grape shipments, to the shallow soils of the 
high foothill and mountain slopes, where the grapes are less in 
quantity, but of superior aromatic qualities. This wide adaptation 
gives an immense area suited for grape culture, but the chief 
reason for the achievement and the promise of the grape in Cali- 
fornia is in the fact that the European species, Vitis vinifera, 
thrives, and thus the Californian grower has command of all that 
Europeans have accomplished in centuries by developing special 
varieties of the species for special purposes. The grapes of the 
States east of the Rocky mountains are only grown in California 
in a small way because the European varieties are the only ones 
from which raisins can be made ; they also furnish the world's 
wine and brandy, and they give size, beauty and shipping quality 
beyond all comparison with American varieties. Wherever 
wealthy Eastern connoisseurs choose grapes for their glass houses, 
they select European varieties ; the Californian grows his "hot 
house" grapes in the open air. He also grows most of them with- 
out the cost of trellising, because the European varieties generally 
will bear well in short-pruned bush form. California has a large 
acreage of grape vines, and planting has been very active during 
the last few years, because good ^prices have prevailed, especially 
through the increased opportunity for fresh grape shipments. At 
the same time, new economic and commercial problems are con- 
tinually arising and the industry has to readjust itself to new con- 
ditions. Discussion of such problems does not come within the 
scope of a cultural treatise like this. It is the duty of the grower 
to keep himself up to date on such subjects by faithful reading of 
California periodicals and by participation in public assemblies in 
the grape interest. Concerning cultural difficulties, the protection 
of vine from its enemies and problems in vinification, special 

■329 



ooA CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

researches are constantly pursued by the University Experiment 
Station at Berkeley and publications are furnished on application. 
The culture of the grape is one of the great branches of Cali- 
fornia horticulture. Its three chief divisions are : Grapes for the 
table, grapes for wine, and grapes for raisins. In all these 
branches the product has far exceeded local requirements and has 
become an important item in the export trade of the State. The. 
attairxments of the industry can be roughly measured by the sta- 
tistics of the shipments of grapes, raisins, wine and brandy, which 
are given at the close of Chapter VI. 

THE GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA 

The grape has a very wide range in California. If the imme- 
diate seacoast and the higher altitudes on the mountains be 
excepted, the grape may be planted with a good chance of suc- 
cess anywhere if soil and local topography be suitable. As has 
been shown in Chapter I, the vine can approach quite close to 
the ocean if some shelter from prevailing cool winds be afforded, 
and quite high on the mountains if one keeps out of depressions 
where late frosts are frequent. In planting the grape in doubtful 
situations much depends upon choice of proper varieties. For 
example, in the cool air of the coast region and the short summer 
of the higher altitudes, early maturing varieties must be the main 
reliance, for late sorts will not receive heat enough to bring them 
to full maturity. 

Away from immediate coast influences, and up to perhaps three 
thousand feet or more on the sides of the Sierra, the grape is suc- 
cessfully grown both upon the floors of the valleys and upon the 
hillsides. But there is still need of choice both of special loca- 
tions and of varieties according to the purposes which the grower 
has in view. The coast valleys of the upper part of the State 
produce good table grapes, but they are unfavorable for the 
raisin industry because of the deficient sunshine and excessive 
atmospheric humidity of the autumn months. The best raisins 
are made in the dry, heated valleys of the interior, and the condi- 
tions which there develop the fullest quality of the raisin grape 
also develop the sugar in some kinds of wine grapes beyond a 
desirable percentage. Here again the choice of suitable varieties 
intrudes itself, for the varieties which yield light table wines in 
the coast valleys may yield heavy "heady" wines in the interior. 
Valleys, too, as a rule, although they yield larger crops of grapes 
and greater measure of wine than similar area on the hillsides, 
must yield the palm for quality to the warm soils of the slopes. 
And here enters the business proposition whether large amount 
and less quality is better than less amount and higher quality. 
To this there can be no general answer. It depends upon the 



SOILS FOR THE GRAPE 33]^ 

disposition which is to be made of the crop, and the demand for it. 
The coloring of certain varieties is a matter underlying their 
profitable production for fresh shipments and this is determined 
by local conditions concerning which the best information is actual 
observation of their effects. These few facts out of many which 
could be stated Avill serve to enforce the fact that wide as is 
the range of the grape, both localities and varieties for certain 
purposes must be intelligently chosen. Much has been learned 
during the last few years, but it will require the experience of 
another generation, perhaps, to make the matter clear. 

Soils for the Grape. — The grape will thrive on a great variety 
of soils, in fact, on any of those enumerated as fruit soils in 
Chapter III. There are thrifty vineyards on the light, deep valley 
loams, on the heavy clayey loams, on adobe, and on the red soils 
of the foothills. Even on shallow soils the grape will do well if 
given sufficient moisture, and on rocky subsoils it thrives if there 
be crevices for the roots to penetrate, or if the rock be shattered 
to admit the roots to permeable substrata. Standing water dur- 
ing the active period of the vine is, however, unfavorable to 
growth, and alkali is adverse to satisfactory results in wine mak- 
ing. Almost any soil which does not hold excess of water or 
is not tainted with alkali will do for the vine, although the plant 
appreciates good, deep soil, and will grow and bear fruit in pro- 
portion to its supply of it. Of course the economic question of 
ease of cultivation enters into the choice of soil for the grape, 
as for other fruits, but its claims are obvious and need not be 
enlarged upon. 

Length of the Grape Season. — By choice of early and late vari- 
eties the grape season extends over half a year in California, 
without recourse to artificial means of preservation. Where the 
fall rains are not very protracted, the late varieties sometimes 
remain in good condition on the vines until the winter pruning. 
Good grapes have been picked from the vines as late as the mid- 
dle of January. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING VINES 

The grape is propagated from seed or by layers, or by cuttings 
of various lengths. Growing from seed was somewhat resorted 
to in California to get stocks for resisting the phylloxera, but such 
wide variation in resistance occurred in seedlings that propaga- 
tion by cuttings, of varieties demonstrated to be best in this 
regard, has become universal. There is at present little dispo- 
sition to grow grape seedlings in the hope of securing better and 
hardier varieties, as is so largely done in other parts of the country. 
The vast numbers of varieties of the European species, vinifera, 
which we have to draw from, makes the effort for new seedlings 
of little object. 

Growing Vines from Seed. — Seed is easily removed from the 
grapes by crushing the berries and stirring the pulp rapidly in 
water. From one pound of good, fresh seed one might get from 
two to three thousand seedlings. Some advocate sowing grape 
seed in the fall, just as it is taken from the fruit, but best 
results are usually obtained by spring sewing, after danger from 
frost is over. It is advisable to keep grape seed moist for some 
time before sowing. Seed soaked one week in water, and after- 
ward allowed to lie in a heap for three weeks germinates quickly, 
starting in ten days or two weeks after being put in the ground. 
Professor Husmann advised pouring hot water on the seed and 
allowing it to cool, the seed remaining in the water for twelve 
hours, and after that it is kept for a week in a sack, exposed to 
the sun, and covered at night, the sack being moistened from time 
to time. 

The seed should be sown in the open ground, the soil having 
been worked deeply and finely, as for a garden. Sow the seed 
about an inch apart, in drills far enough from each other to admit 
the use of the cultivator in the summer; cover not to exceed an 
inch in depth, and after moderate pressing of the ground, cover 
the whole bed with rotten straw, which should be gradually 
removed as the sprouts appear above the ground. This mulch 
will not only retain moisture, but will prevent the surface from 
being crusted by heavy showers. Summer cultivation with cul- 
tivator and hoe should be given. 

332 



WAYS TO GROW GRAPli: VINES 333 

Growing Vines by Layering. — This is another method of mul- 
tiplying vines which' is but little employed in California, because 
it is so much easier to secure plants by cuttings, as the vinifera 
species roots so readily. Layering consists in bending down and 
burying one of the lower canes so as to facilitate top and root 
growth from each of the buds. To hold the cane in place, stakes 
are used, the trench being left open until the shoots grow out 
and then, by covering the roots are developed. The cane must 
rest in moist earth, and usually has to be watered artificially, as 
well as treated to prevent evaporation. The following winter the 
cane is raised and a plant made at each node. 

Another use for layering is to fill a vacancy in the row, a cane 
being taken from the nearest living vine. In this case the layer 
must be set in a deep trench so as not to be torn out by the plow, 
and the layered cane is at once covered in with earth, all but 
one or two buds at the extremity, where the new vine is desired. 
Such a layer usually bears the second year and is then detached 
from the parent vine. 

Both the layers described are laid down early in the spring, 
before growth starts in the vine. Summer layers of the current 
season's growth are sometimes made, but are not usually satis- 
factory. 

Growing Vines from Cuttings. — This is the prevailing method 
in this State both to secure grafting stocks and to grow vines on 
their own roots. In growing from cuttings, dififerent policies are 
adopted, 4. e., placing the cuttings in permanent place in the vine- 
yard, or rooting them in nursery to be afterward transferred to 
the vineyard as "rooted vines." First, the various kinds of cuttings 
will be considered, and their placing mentioned later. 

Growth from Single Eyes. — The use of single eyes or single 
buds, the shortest possible form of cutting, is not large in Cali- 
fornia, but some growers have reported good results. The method 
is to prepare the cuttings with a half-inch or so of the cane on 
each side of the bud and plant them carefully, with the bud upwards, 
in well-prepared soil, covering the cutting completely, but very 
little under the sui-face. Success depends upon retention of mois- 
ture in the surface soil to induce rooting, and mulchmg is advis- 
able. The method of propagation, too, seems best adapted to the 
moister parts of the State, whence, in fact, most success with it 
has been reported. Besides economy of wood in getting a plant 
from each bud of the cane, which is sometimes an object, growing 
from single eyes is advocated because of the satisfactory root 
system secured, which much resembles that of a seedling. The 
use of single eyes is obviously better adapted to nursery than 
to field growth. 



334 



CAL,IFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The Use of Longer Cuttings.* — It was formerly considered 
good practice to leave a piece of old wood attached to the base 
of the cutting, on the ground that such cuttings always grew. 




Properly made cuttings. 



This practice is now very generally abandoned, as it often gives 
rise to weak and diseased vines. The piece of old wood always 
decays finally, and the decay may spread into the trunk and roots 



* Much of the following description of handling cuttings is taken bodily from the 
excellent University publications by Mr. F. T. Bioletti, viz.: Circular 26, "Selection 
and preparation of Vine Cuttings." Bulletin 180, "Resistant Vineyards — grafting, 
planting, cultivation."- Bulletin 193, "The Best Wine Grapes for California," etc. 
All these contain discussions of propagation methods. 



MAKING GRAPE CUTTINGS 



335 



of the vine. A good cutting should consist exclusively of one- 
year-old wood ; that is, the wood which has grown during the 
previous season. 

The form and length of the cuttings will depend on the use 
that is to be made of them. If they are to be used as scions for 
grafting they may be cut up in any way and of any length that 
is found convenient for handling and keeping them in good con- 
dition. If they are to be used for rooting either in the nursery 
or the vineyard it is most convenient to cut them up into the 
exact lengths which are to be planted. 

The length will depend altogether on the soil and climate 
where they are to be planted. They should be. of such a length 
that when planted the base of the cutting will be at the level 
where the conditions are most favorable to root formation. If 
the base is too deep, it will be too wet and too cold to develop 
roots. Roots will start higher up and the bottom part will be 
wasted, or worse still, may decay and injure the vine. If the 
base is too near the surface the whole cutting may dry out and 
die before its roots have developed sufficiently to supply it with 
water. 

In the moister soils of the cooler districts a cutting 10 inches 
long is sufficient for direct planting in the vineyard. In the drier 
and warmer interior a 14-inch to 16-inch cutting is better, while 
in the driest soils of the warmest districts it is often necessary 
to have a cutting 18 to 20 inches long. For planting in the nursery 
a 12 or 14-inch cutting is about the most convenient. If the soil 
of the nursery is wet and cold more of the cutting should be left 
above ground ; if, on the contrary, the soil tends to be hot and 
dry the cutting must be planted deeper and even covered up com- 
pletely. 

It is not necessary, or possible, to make every cutting of 
exactly the same length, because they should all terminate at each 
end at a node. A vine cane consists of nodes where the buds are 
and internodes between them. The pith is interrupted at each 
node by a woody partition (called the "diaphragm") which extends 
through the cane at each bud. In making a cutting, therefore, 
we should cut exactly through a bud both at the top and at the 
bottom. This will leave the wood}^ partitions, which will prevent 
decay at the bottom and drying out at the top. If removed, the 
pith in the upper internode will be exposed to alternate wetting and 
drying,- and may decay, thus weakening or killing the bud below. 

In planting, the cutting should be placed with just one bud 
above the surface of the ground, as indicated by the dotted line 
in the accompanying engraving. It is a great mistake to leave 
more than one bud out of the ground, as this increases the danger 
of drying out. 



336 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Making and Caring for Cuttings. — Cuttings can be taken from 
the vines at any time after the fall of the leaf and before the 
spring flow of sap begins. The earlier cuttings — those taken 
before January — are more likely to make a successful start and 
after-growth than those cut later in the 'season. 

It is common, however, to defer preparation of cuttings till 
the pruning is done, be it early or late, and this will generally 
answer the purpose, if care be taken to secure the cuttings imme- 
diately at the pruning; but if the branches be allowed to lie upon 
the ground for days, exposed to sun, wind, or frost, before the 
cuttings are secured, their chances of growth are seriously lessened, 
and a good part of the failures in planting are due to such cuttings. 

Cuttings should be taken from the short-jointed, well-ripened 
wood of the previous year's growth, cut squarely and smoothly 
as already described. Cuttings from the outer ends of long canes 
are not so likely to root, nor to grow so vigorously, as those from 
stronger wood, from three-eighths to fiye-eighths of an inch diam- 
eter generally. 

Keep them dormant until the time comes to set them in the 
vineyard, else the tender shoots may get broken. To keep them 
back, place them, at the pruning, in trenches, about as deep as the 
length of the cuttings, on the north side of a close board fence 
or a building, cover with loose earth, and over that throw some 
straw and boards. Take care that the trenches are in moist but 
not wet ground as too much moisture rots the cuttings. If the 
ground has not been moist enough, and the cuttings seem dry 
or withered, plunge them in water to within three or four inches 
of their top, for a few days before setting, and do not let them 
dry again before planting. 

Rooting Cuttings in Nursery. — What has been written is in 
reference to cuttings designed for placing in permanent position 
in the vineyard, but, for the most part, applies as well to the 
preparation of cuttings for the nursery. For nursery treatment, 
however, shorter cuttings can be used than for field planting, 
because of the better cultivation and more generous moisture con- 
ditions which are usually provided. 

In preparation of ground for the rooting of vines and the 
planting of cuttings therein, the suggestions in Chapter VIII are 
directly applicable, as, to secure rooting of the cuttings, there is 
just as great need for deep and fine working of the soil, pressing 
of it around the cutting, and for careful culture during the grow- 
ing season, as there is for such treatment of fruit-tree seedling 
or root graft. It is just as necessary, too, that the rooted cuttings 
should be carefully lifted and guarded from drying out while on 
the way from the nursery to permanent place. The reader is, 
therefore, referred to Chapter VIII for suggestions on preparation^ 



BUDDING THE GRAPE 



337 



laying out, and care of nursery ground intended for the rooting 
of grape cuttings. 

To secure vines upon resistant roots recourse has recently 
been made by some growers to the cutting-graft which will be 
mentioned presently. 

There is a growing tendency to use rooted vines instead of 
cuttings in planting out vineyards, for, although the former cost 
several times as much as the latter, either in the time of the 
grower or in cash outlay, the balance is believed to be usually on 
the other side, when the uniform stand and more satisfactory 
growth secured by rooted vines are considered. 

BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE 

Working over the grape-vine is largely practiced in this State 
and is easily accomplished. The occasion is twofold : Replacing 
undesirable varieties with those of better quality, or in better 
market deraand, and in bringing the vinifcra varieties upon roots 
which resist the attacks of the phylloxera. The employment of 
resistant stocks has proved eminently satisfactory in this State, 
the resistant stock having been successfully installed even in the 
hole from which the dead vinifera root had been taken. For this 
reason resistant roots are largely relied upon in the planting of 





Budding from previous season's growth. 



new vineyards in infested districts, and also used to some extent 
in regions where the insect is not now found, by those who fear 
and desire to provide against its coming. And yet in the large 
planting of vineyard in the interior valley which has recently 



338 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



been undertaken very little attention has been paid to resistant 
roots. It is so cheap to proceed with simple cuttings of the variety 
desired, and the vine comes into bearing so soon, that most 
planters are willing to take the risk of infection with phylloxera 
for it may be long delayed and several profitable crops may be 
realized before its arrival. This is a question which each planter 
must answer for himself. 

Budding the Grape. — Buds can be readily made to grow in 
grape canes, though budding is not largely used. Success can 
be had with the same method of budding that is common with 
fruit trees as described in Chapter IX. Insert the bud (which is 
taken from a cane of the previous season's growth) in the spring 
as soon as the bark will slip well on the stock, and before the 
run of the sap is too strong. Keep the cuttings in a cool place 
so their growth will be retarded, and then seize upon just the 
right condition of the stock, insert the bud under the bark of a 
cane of the previous season's growth, tie it around with a string, 
and the bud starts readily without further treatment. When its 
growth shows its ability to take the sap, the top of the stock is 
removed. 

Herbaceous budding is also practicable. It consists of taking 
buds from the current season's growth and Avorking them upon 
canes also of current growth by the usual shield budding process. 
Mr. Thomas Casalegna of San Martin succeeds well with this 
under these conditions: All buds put in from July 15 to August 
15 start the same year, but may be injured by fall frosts. Those 
put in from August 15 to September 15 remain dormant until the 
following year, unless the stock is exceptionally vigorous. Bud- 
ding is most successful in the month of August. The buds should 
be taken from canes which have reached the stage of maturity 
indicated by the pith turning white and just before the bark turns 
yellow. 

Grafting the Vine. — Grafting in old vine roots is a simple opera- 
tion, and is performed in various ways. The principles involved 
in vine grafting are similar to those affecting tree grafting, as 
described in Chapter IX. The processes employed are also sim- 
ilar, but the graft requires less binding and covering, because it 
is usually made beneath the surface of the ground, and is, there- 
fore, less subject to accident, exposure, and drying out. 

Grafting in the old Stump. — This is resorted to when the char- 
acter of the vineyard is to be changed. Out of the many ways 
for working into old stumps, one introduces the scion by a side 
cut into the stock without splitting across as shown at C C in the 
engraving on page 341. The earth is removed from the old vine 
down to its first lateral roots, and the top is sawed off cleanly 



GRAFTING THE GRAPE 



339 



a few inches above the first laterals. A cut is then made into the 
side of the stump with a knife and mallet, as shown in the figure. 
The scion is then cut long enough so that one bud will remain 
above ground when the surface is leveled again, the bottom of 




Herbaceous buds which have taken hold. 



the scion being given an oblique wedge-shape, so as to fit the 
crevice in the stock. Some care is needed in shaping the wedge 
of the scion, so that the surfaces are in contact will give good 
results. If the stock is well made and the end of the scion so 
adjusted that the stock will pinch it when it is pushed into place, 
nothing more will be needed except to smear over the cut surface 
of the stump and the joint of the scion and stock with clay or 
with a mixture of two parts clay and one- part fresh cow manure. 
If the scion is held firmly and sealed in with this mixture, it usually 
needs no tying, and the hole can be carefully filled with loose earth, 
with a strong stake to mark the place of the graft, and to which 
the new growth can be securely tied afterwards. 

Another common method of grafting beneath the ground is to 
split the stump across its center, as is done in top-grafting fruit 
trees as shown in Chapter IX, and one or two scions inserted. 
If two are used and both grow, the weakly one is afterward sup- 
pressed. In this cross cleft graft some grafters rely upon the 
stock to hold the scion without tying, and daub it over with the 
clay mixture, care being taken to fill and cover the split in the 



340 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Stock to exclude water. Others put a ligature around the split 
stump, as shown in the engraving. Strips of cotton cloth answer 
well for this purpose. Tying offers better security from knocking! 
out the graft with the cultivator. 

In grafting into very tough old stumps, some growers leave a 
slim wedge of wood in the cleft with the scion to prevent the 
stock from closing too forcibly upon the scion. 

Side Grafting. — Side grafting the vine is commended by some 
growers. It consists in inserting a graft b)^ a cut into the side of 
the stock, the method being essentially the same as that employed 
with fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, except that in side 
grafting the vine the top is not amputated, but is allowed to bear 
its crop and is then removed the following winter. The next 
summer the scion will bear a crop, and the vine is worked over 
without cessation in its bearing. 

Herbaceous Grafting. — This term is applied to a graft in which 
the scion of the current season's growth is set by a cleft graft 
into canes also of the current season's growth, while both scion 
and cane are elastic, but not too soft. The method has not 
been usually successful in this State, apparently because of the 
dryness of the summer air. Still some satisfactory results are 
reported. Mr. Casalegna of Santa Clara county, whose success 
with herbaceous buds has been noted, does well also with soft- 
wood grafting by the whip-graft method. He says it is most 
successful in June, provided the scions are hard enough. The 
pith must be white. In a strong-growing vineyard grafting may 
be done in July. The leaves are taken off the scions when they 
are cut. If they are to be used immediately they are placed in 
water; if to be carried some distance they are placed in a wet 
sack. Tie the grafts with German knitting yarn, not with rafifia. 
The season for herbaceous grafting will, of course, vary according 
to the locality. Hot weather immediately following the work is 
fatal to most of the grafts. If two or three cool days follow the 
insertion of the scions he obtains an almost perfect stand. 

Care of Scions. — Scions should be kept cool and moist enough 
to prevent drying but not wet enough to cause decay, as has 
already been described in the keeping of cuttings. 

Time of Grafting. — Grafting into old vine stumps is done in 
February, March and April in different parts of the State, March 
being the month usually chosen for the work. If a spring graft 
fails, the stump may be regrafted in August or in the following 
spring. In regrafting, the stump is cut off again below the pre- 
vious cleft. The time for the work is when the sap has ceased 
flowing, usually from the first to the tenth of August. 



GRAFTING THE GRAPE 



341 



The recourse to resistant roots to escape the phylloxera has 
been attended with some disappointment because the wild roots 
at first widely used proved only partially resistant. Recently, 
in the main through employment of French selected varieties of 
the American wild species, stocks with satisfactory resistance. 




Methods of field grafting grape vines 

A. Whip graft for stocks 1-2 to 2-3 of an inch in diameter. 

B, BB. Whip graft for stocks 2-3 to 3-4 of an inch in diameter. 

C, CC. Cleft graft for stocks 3-4 of an inch in diameter and for old stumps. 



342 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



larger growth and vigor and adaptation to different California 
soils have been secured. Notable success has been attained in 
the habilitation of vineyards on the basis of resistant roots. The 
University Experiment Station, at Berkeley, has maintained lead- 
ership in this direction by publication of specific information which 
can be had by application to the Director. 




Instances of successful herbaceous grafts. 



Resistant Varieties. — American wild vines are characterized by 
very marked differences in degree of resistance to phylloxera, and 
especially in adaptability to soils. Not only do species differ in 
this respect, but varieties of the same species show widely differ- 
ent characteristics. As a result of the process of selection varieties 
have been secured which are far above the average of the species 
in vigor of growth and development, degree of resistance and gen- 
eral suitability for resistant root purposes. The few varieties 
which have thus demonstrated particular excellence in France 
and have given notable indications of success in California, are 
presented by Mr. Bioletti as follows : 

The varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability 
be most used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), 
Riparia X Rupestris 3306. Riparia X Rupestris 3309, Riparia So- 
lonis 1616, Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202, Aramon X Rupestris 2, 
Riparia gloire, and Riparia grande globre. These are all varieties 




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344 



VARIOUS RESISTANT VINES g45 

which have given excellent results for years in Europe, and have 
all been tested successfully in California. Among them are vari- 
eties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of California, with 
perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays. 

The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows 
very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes. It 
roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera vari- 
eties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can penetrate. 
Its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist 
soils; it suckers badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils. 
Its great vigor produces coulure with some varieties and often 
necessitates long pruning. 

In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 have given better results in 
France and give indications of doing equally well here. In drier 
soils 3309 will probably be found preferable. 

Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris 
St. George, and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils. 
It has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more 
difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it 
is rather less susceptible to root-rot. 

There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and 
Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit 
them. They do well, however, only in deep, ricH, alluvial soils 
which are neither too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most 
productive of all, and ripen their grapes from one to two weeks 
earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their principal defect is 
that they are very particular as to the soil, and they never grow 
quite as large as the scion. The gloire is the most vigorous, and 
the difference is less with this variety than with any other Riparia. 

The Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, roots 
and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist 
soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not suffi- 
cient. 

The most promising varieties for general use at present seem 
to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 axid 3309. 
They have great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost 
as easily as St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to sup- 
port any variety of vinifera. The former is more suited to the 
moister soils and wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the 
latter to the drier soils. In general, they are suited to a larger 
variety of soils and conditions than perhaps any other varieties. 

Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil 
containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what would 
be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to 
overflow. 



346 



CAl^lFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



In most other soils Riparia X Rupestris 3306 is to be recom- 
mended, except those which are rather dry, where 3309 is to be 
preferred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis X Riparia 
1616 is surer to give good results. 

The Cutting Graft. — Grafting the desired variety upon a resist- 
ant cutting, putting these cutting-grafts through a callusing bed 
and then planting the grafted cutting in nursery for rooting is 
an accepted French method which is being successfully employed 
in California. This has advantage in time gained and in securing 
a full stand of vines as compared with grafting upon cuttings 
already rooted in place in the vineyard though the latter has been 
successfully practiced. 

If cutting-grafts are placed directly in the nursery many will 
fail. For this reason it is always best, except at the extreme end 
of the grafting season, to '^stratify^' the grafts in a "callusing ' bed, 
where conditions of moisture, temperature, and aeration can be 
controlled. This callusing bed is usually a pile of ' clean sand 
placed in the south end of a wall or building" surrounded by a 
board partition where there is no possibility of its becoming too 
wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an over- 
hanging roof. It should be protected, if necessary, by a surround- 
ing ditch. It should be furnished with a removable cover of canvas 
or boards to protect it from rain and to enable the temperature 
to be controlled by admission or exclusion of the sun's rays. A 
water-proof wagon-cover, black on one side and white on the 
other, is excellent for this purpose. 

The bottom of the callusing" bed is first covered with 2 or 3 
inches of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in a row 
along one end of the bed, and sand well filled in around them. 
The bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined position with 
the scions uppermost, and the sand should be dry enough so that 
it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle. The bundles of grafts 
are then covered up completely with sand, leaving it at least 2 
inches deep above the top of the scion. There should be but little 
more moisture present for callusing than in the sand used for 
keeping the cuttings over winter. Too much moisture will stim- 
ulate the emission of roots and starting of buds without aiding 
the callus formation, which is a perfectly distinct process from the 
formation of roots. 

An adjacent engraving shows the subsequent rooting of cutting- 
grafts in the nursery. 

Grafting of Resistant Stocks after Rooting. — Grafting on resist- 
ant roots differs from working in old stumps in the size of the 
wood to be operated on, and in the fact that the graft must be set 
higher up because it is not desirable to have the scion strike roots 



LAYING OUT VINEYARD 



347 



of its own, for the obvious reason that depending on such roots 
would make the vine no longer- resistant. The advantage of cov- 
ering the graft with earth is, however, still to be enjoyed, for the 
earth can be raised in a little mound around the graft, to be 
removed when the graft has taken well. For this reason grafting 
on resistant roots is usually done at or near the surface of the 
ground. 

The common cleft graft is used when the stock is large enough 
to give a split strong enough to hold in the scion. In grafting 
smaller stocks the whip graft is used both in making cutting- 
grafts and in grafting cuttings already rooted. This graft is 
variously treated. It is covered with clay by some, by others 
with grafting wax ; but the common experience is that grafting 
wax makes too tight a joint, and holds in surplus sap, which 
begets disease. The use of a wax band specially adapted to ruling 
conditions has proved very successful, but the easiest and usually 
most satisfactory way is to wind with soft twine or raffia which 
will decay and loosen as the graft enlarges, but care must be taken 
to cut the band if it has not decayed at the time of transplanting. 

LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD 

Vines are planted in rectangles, generally in squares, but some- 
times at a less distance in the rows than the rows are from each 
other. The stakes which are to represent the future vines are in 
either case placed by the same methods of measuring or mark- 
ing off. All the methods described for clearing and preparing 
lands, in Chapter VII, and for laying off ground in squares, 
described in Chapter X, are applicable to vineyard ground. The 
measuring wire therein described is the means usually employed 
for laying off. A special contrivance which has been used to 
some extent on level ground is thus described : 

The marker most in use is made in the form of a sled, sixteen, fourteen, 
or twelve feet long, with three runners so placed as to mark rows eight, 
seven, or six feet wide. These runners should be made about three feet long, 
of some hard wood (Oregon pine will do), two inches thick and firmly 
nailed to two planks placed upon them of the lengths first above named. 
Upon these should be bolted two strong pieces of joist in the form of wagon 
hounds projecting in front far enough to receive a stout pole like a wagon- 
tongue, well braced and fastened with an iron rod. Care must be taken that 
the motion of the machine is steady and true in all its parts. With a well- 
made marker, a gentle team, and a careful driver, excellent work may be 
done. 

Distance of Planting. — There is as much difference of opinion 
and practice in fixing the distance between vines as between 
orchard trees, but usually more room is given than formerly. 
Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven to ten feet, 
with eight feet as most prevalent, taking the State as a whole. 



348 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Planting in rows is also adopted to some extent. Such planta- 
tions are made with the vines seven by ten or eight by ten feet, 
four and one-half by eleven feet, etc. There is great variation 
in the distances. Some advantages of the row system are as 
follows : Greater space to spread trays for raisin curing ; plow- 
ing can be done with double team and larger plows ; the brush 
can be gathered and burned between the rows instead of carry- 
ing it to the avenues ; sulphur and materials for spraying can be. 
brought in by team to any part of the vineyard ; empty boxes can 
be distributed and filled ones gathered up without carrying, etc. 
Planting in rows recommends itself not only for planting new 
vineyards, but also for changing old vineyards from seven by 
seven feet to three and one-half by fourteen feet, or from eight 
by eight feet to four by sixteen feet, giving opportunity to change 
from a vinif era-root vineyard to a resistant-root vineyard. This 
can be accomplished by planting resistant roots in the alternate 
rows to be preserved, right between the two old vines. 

Number of Vines to the Acre. — However the vines be set, it 
is very easy to calculate the number of vines which an acre will 
accommodate. Multiply the distance in feet between the rows 
by the distance the plants are apart in the rows, and the product 
will be the number of scjuare feet for each plant, which, divided 
into the number of feet in an acre (forty-three thousand five hun- 
dred and sixty), will give the number of plants to the acre. 

Avenues in the Vineyard. — For convenience of access with 
team and wagon there should always be avenues through the 
vineyard. They are usually arranged so as to cut up the vine- 
yard into blocks about twice as long as broad, if the vineyard 
be on level land. Of course, on hilly lands the avenues should 
be located for case of hauling. The avenue is made by leaving 
out a row of vines, and, therefore, the exact sije of the block 
will depend upon the distance between the rows. Some advise 
having not more than forty vines between the avenues. Plant- 
ing in rows, with wide spaces between the rows, renders few ave- 
nues necessary. 

PLANTING CUTTINGS AND ROOTED VINES 

Various means are used for planting cuttings. An essential 
condition to successful growth is to have the lower part of the 
cutting well embedded, in the soil, as it will not root unless in 
close contact with the earth. To lack of care in this regard most 
failures are due, and for lack of surety that such contact is made 
the various contrivances for speedy planting, such as the plant- 
ing bar, are widely condemned ; an excavation of the hole and 



WAYS TO PLANT CUTTINGS 



349 



refilling with fine surface earth, just as advised in Chapter XI, 
for planting orchard trees, is commended "as the safest practice. 
Much, however, depends upon the soil. In loose, free soil such 
a use of bar or "sheep's-foot" as will be presently described may 
be satisfactory, while it would be impracticable on firmer soils, 
both because of the difficulty of insertion and because the packed 
condition caused by the forcing in would not favor root exten- 



\J 



a 



r 



Dibbles for planting vine cuttings. 



sion, and not desirable on shallow soils because the contact of the 
better surface soil with the bottom of the cutting will stimulate 
the growth of the cutting, and is, therefore, very desirable. 

The post-hole auger and a device for taking out soil as a 
"trier" takes out a sample of cheese or butter, have also been 
used to some extent, but not widely, in making holes for cuttings. 



' 350 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Other forms of dibbles for planting vine cuttings relate par- 
ticularly to the setting of cutting-grafts in a light deeply-worked 
nursery soil, but may be also used to advantage in placing cut- 
tings in the vineyard if the soil favors such a method. They are 
described by Mr. Bioletti as follows : 

Two of the best forms of nursery dibbles are shown in the 
engraving. The first, A, consists of a piece of round one-half-inch 
iron, 18 inches long, furnished with a wooden handle at one end 
and a curved double point with a V-shaped cleft in the other. 
The bottom node of the stock is caught in the cleft and the graft 
forced down to the desired depth. Unless the ground is very 
light the other dibble, B, is preferable. It consists of a sword- 
shaped piece of iron 18 to 20 inches long and 2 inches wide, fur- 
nished also with a handle. The usual way of using it is to press 
it into the ground to the desired depth, open the hole a little with 
a lateral thrust, withdraw it and insert the graft. The dibble 
is then pushed into the ground again at about an inch to one side 
of the graft and by another lateral thrust the earth is pressed 
tightly around the graft. This takes more time than is necessary 
with the other form of dibble, and usually done carefully there is 
danger of failing to make the soil close around the base of the 
stock, which is thus left surrounded by an air space. Grafts 
left in this way are apt to become moldy and fail to make good 
roots. The figure C is a planting dibble to be used with hand 
and foot like a spade. All such contrivances are only suited to 
light soils which crumble and settle easily. On heavier soils, 
digging holes and placing the soil around the roots or the base 
of the cutting by hand is indispensable. 

Planting Bar and Sheep's-foot. — The following methods, 
described by Dr. Gustav Eisen as prevailing in the raisin districts 
of the San Joaquin Valley, on sandy, loamy soils, will well illus- 
trate similar methods wherever followed : 

The planting bar consists of a bar of hard iron, sharpened at the lower end 
and furnished with a cross-handle at the other. The length of the bar is about 
three and a half feet, width about two and a half inches, and thickness a third to 
half an inch. If less than this the bar will bend. The planting is done by pushing 
the bar perpendicularly in the ground. After withdrawing it, insert the cutting 
and push it down to the bottom. Fill up the hole by again inserting the bar in 
the ground close by and pressing the flat side against the hole. 

The sheep's-foot consists of a round rod with cross-handle at the upper end. 
The lower end of the rod is slightly flattened, bent, and forked. The planting is 
done by fitting the forked end over the butt-end of the cutting, and immediately 
pushing cutting and rod together to the desired depth in the soil. A slight twist 
is now given to the sheep's-foot. This loosens it from the cutting and allows it 
to be withdrawn. A tamp with the foot fills the hole. Great care must be taken 
in withdrawing the sheep's-foot, lest in doing so the cutting should be lifted also, 
and this will leave a fatal air chamber at the lower end. The slight twist given 
the rod before withxlrawing loosens it and leaves the cutting undisturbed. 



PLANTING ROOTED VINES 



351 



For planting- in dry situations some careful planters run water 
and fine earth into the hole made by the bar after inserting the 
cutting; others run in fine sand dry and then pour on water. In 
using water in this way one must take care that he does not 
use adobe earth, for a succeeding dry spell may bake it, and the 
cutting will be worse ofif than if not puddled. 

Planting Rooted Vines. — Planting rooted vines is governed by 
the same rules commended for planting trees in Chapter XI, so 
far as preparation of holes, care in placing and firming the soil 
around the roots, etc., is concerned. In handling rooted vines 
there must be greater care in packing and transportation to pre- 
vent the roots from drying, and in carrying to the field it is gen- 
erally advised that the plants be kept in a pail or other receptacle 
with water. The vine roots are very small and tender, and 
success will largely depend upon good care of them. At planting 
all dead or injured roots should be trimmed away, healthy roots 
shortened so that they can be placed well in the hole^ and the 
top reduced to a single cane cut back to two eyes. 

When to Plant. — The exact time to plant can not be stated, 
for the condition of the soil and the local season-points are the 
best guides. Planting can be done much later as a rule in the 
coast regions than in the interior, because the soil is usually 
later in getting into good condition of mellowness and warmth, 
and the late rains are usually heavier. It is certainly not advis- 
able to place cuttings in cold, wet soil, and dry soil will quickly 
destroy their vitality. The suggestions given in Chapter XI 
should be carefully considered. The planter must use good judg- 
ment in choosing his time for planting, aided in forming it by the 
best local experience he can get. 

Cultivation of Vineyard. — General suggestions concerning the 
cultivation of the vineyard have already been given in Chapter 
XIII, preceding. 



X 



■^;- 


















**s^ '^'jf? ■<^'^* ■■* . -if^ 












'€*^.^ 



Instance of large bearing by long pruning. 



352 



CHAPTER XXVII 

PRUNING AND CARE OF THE VINE* 

Most of the varieties of vinifera grown in California at present 
thrive under the short pruning system. There are exceptions, 
however, which will be noted later. The prevalence of the short 
pruning system frees our growers from the expense and incon- 
venience of trellises. Though in the early years of the vine stakes 
are used, our older vines stand by themselves and are as inde- 
pendent of supports as our fruit trees. The vines are, in fact, 
shaped upon something the same model as our fruit trees, the 
so-called "goblet form" of the French being our prototype. 

THE FIRST YEAR 

During the summer of the year the vines are planted, no prun- 
ing or training of any kind is needed in most cases. For this 
reason it is nearly always unnecessary to stake the vines when 
they are planted. The only exception to this is when strong- 
rooted vines are planted in a rich, moist soil in which they will 
make a very large growth the first year. In this case it is desir- 
able, though not quite necessary, to stake the vines immediately 
after planting to adopt the method of summer treatment described 
below for the second year. 

In most cases it is best to allow all shoots to remain to feed 
the vine and to insure a good root growth the first year. 

Staking. — In the autumn or winter following planting, the 
vines should be staked, either before or after pruning, but in any 
case some time before the buds start in the spring. 

The kind of stake used will depend on the variety of vine and 
on the method of pruning to be ultimately adopted. For ordinary 
short-pruning, the stake should be of such length that, after being 
driven into the ground, sufficient will be below the surface to 
keep it firm and prevent its being loosened by the force of the wind 
acting on the vine which is tied to it, and sufficient above the 
surface to extend one or two inches above the height at which 
it is intended to head the vines. It should be from one and one- 
quarter to one and one-half inches square, according to the length. 



* The detailed instructions and accompanying illustrations in this chapter are 
taken from the excellent writings of Mr. F. T. Bioletti for the California Experiment 
Station, and embody the teachings of long experience and wide observation. 

363 



354 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



In firm ground, for small-growing vines such as Zinfandel, a 
stake 1 1-4 by 1 1-4 inches and 27 inches long will be sufficient. 
This will allow 15 inches to be driven into the ground and leave 
12 inches above, which is enough for vines to be headed at 10 
inches. If the ground is loose or sandy a 30-inch stake driven 18 
inches into the ground will be needed. For strong-growing vari- 
eties, such as Carignane or Tokay, especially when planted in rich 
soil, a stake 1 1-2 by 1 1-2 inches and 36 inches long will be neces- 
sary, and 15 or 18 inches of this should be left above the ground. 
This will permit the heading of the vines at 15 inches. 

If the vines are to be trellised with one wire, a 36-inch stake 
driven 18 inches into the ground is the proper length. If two 
wires are to be used, a 48-inch stake will be needed, leaving 30 
inches above the surface. 

If the vines are to be pruned long and the canes tied to the 
stake, a 5-foot stake will usually be needed, and this must be 
stronger, 2 by 2 inches square. This stake should be driven 2 
feet into the ground. j 

These dimensions are all smaller than are usual in California, 
but are quite sufficient for all practical purposes. The stake should 
be placed 1 to 2 inches from the vine on the side opposite to the 
prevailing heavy winds. The force of the wind will thus keep 
the vine pressed against the stake and the tying material less liable 
to break. 

First Winter Pruning. — In California, the young vines may be 
pruned at any time after the leaves have fallen, except in sections 
very subject to spring frosts, where it is sometimes advisable to 
defer the pruning until after the top buds of the canes start. 

The way the vines are to be pruned will depend altogether on 
the growth they have made. If the growth has been small the 
tops are pruned exactly like rooted vines before planting. All 
the canes are removed entirely, except the strongest, and this is 
cut back to two buds (see Fig. 1, a). 

Any vines which have made a strong growth and possess at 
least one cane of which a sufficient length is well ripened may be 
pruned for tying up. A\\ the canes are removed entirely, except 
the strongest, and this is cut back to 10, 15, or 18 inches, accord- 
ing to the height at which it is intended to head the vine (see 
Fig. 2, a). The top cut is made through a bud, just as in making 
cuttings. This will facilitate tying up and insure the healthy 
growth of the top bud. 

Sometimes, even when the vine has made sufficient growth, the 
canes are prostrate or crooked and none can be tied up straight 
to the stake. In this case the vine must be pruned like a weak 
vine — that is, thinned to one cane and this cane cut back to two 
buds. 



FIRST STEP IN SHORT PRUNING 



355 





Fig, 1. Treatment of an average vine during second season. 



a. Winter pruning. 

b. Spring pruning — removal of suckers (S) and thinning 

c. Summer treatment — tying to stal^e and topping. 



of shoots (W). 



In no case should two canes of any length be left, and in all 
cases where it is impossible to obtain the full length of well-ripened 
wood for tying up, the cane should be cut back to two buds. It 
is very bad practice to leave some of the canes of intermediate 
length, as this causes the vines to head out at various heights 
and produces an irregularity of shape which can never be remedied 
and which interferes with regular pruning, cultivation and other 
vineyard work. 

The idea to be kept in mind is to cut back each winter nearly 
to the ground — that is, to two buds — until a cane is produced 
with a length of well-ripened wood and good buds equal to the 
height at which the vine is to be headed. It is very important 
that this cane should be straight, healthy and well-ripened, as it 
is from it that the trunks of the mature vine develops. All the 
vines on which a cane has been left should be carefully tied up. 
Two ties will be needed in most cases. A half hitch should be 
made around the cane below the swelling left by the bud which 
has been removed, and the cane tied firmly to the top of the stake. 
Another tie is made about half-way down the stake. The lower 
tie need not be very tight, and in any case the tying material should 
not be passed completely around the cane, except above 



356 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Fig. 2. Treatment of average vine during the third season, 
or of a vigorous vine during the second. 

a. Vine pruned to one cane and tied to stake. 

b. Removal of sucker (S) and lower shoots (W) in spring. 

c. Vine in summer at time of pinching. 

the top bud, or the vine will be strangled when it commences to 
grow (see Fig. 2, a). Any kind of string or twine, sufficiently 
strong to withstand the pressure of the growing vine in a heavy 
wind, may be used. Binding twine, or a single strand of good 
baling rope, is suitable. No. 16 or 17 galvanized wire is preferred 
by some and is better than string, if care is taken to remove the 
bottom ties the following year before they strangle the vine. 
Wire is a little more expensive and takes a little longer to put on 
than string, but holds the vines better and can be used for several 
years. 

SECOND YEAR 

Summer Pruning. — The treatment during the second and third 
spring and summer is of great importance to the future welfare 
of the vine. A little judicious care at this period will avert many 
troubles in later years. It will be necessary to go over the vine- 
yard four or five times to do the suckering, topping, and tying 
which are necessary. 

The shoots starting from the vines which have been cut back 
to two buds should be thinned to a single one. This thinning 



FORMS OP THREE -YEAR-OLD VINES 



357 




Fig. 3. Three-year-old vines after pruning. 

a. Average vine with two spurs. 

b. Vigorous vines with three spurs, the lowest of whicli is to be removed the 

following year. 

c. Vigorous vine with three spurs. 

should be done as soon as possible in such a way that it is never 
necessary to remove a shoot more than 3 or 4 inches long (see Fig. 
I, b). If the thinning is deferred until the shoots are a foot or 
more long the vine will be weakened by the removal of so much 
foliage. If the thinning can not be done early, it is better not to 
do it at all. The object of this thinning is to throw all the force 
and growth of the vine into the cane which is to form finally 
the trunk of the vine. If it is done too late not only does the 
growth not go into" this cane, but the vine is weakened so much 
that this cane does not grow so well as it would have done without 
thinning. 

The first thinning can be done with the first hoeing, and the 
second with the suckering. The suckering. consists of the removal 
of all shoots which come from below the ground. These also 
should be removed as early as practicable, both to avoid weaken- 
ing the vine by the removal of mature leaves and also because a 
young sucker is much more easily separated from the vine at this 
time. Every sucker must be cut or broken off at the point where 
it originates. If a little piece of the sucker is left, several new 



358 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

suckers will start at the same place. The more completely the 
suckering is done during the first two years, the less trouble in 
this respect there will be in later years. This is particularly true 
of grafted vines. 

A few weeks after the first thinning, the single shoot which 
has been left will- have grown 10 or 15 inches. At this length 
it should be tied up to the stake (see Fig. 1, c). If this tying 
is neglected or deferred too long, a heavy wind is very liable to 
break ofif the whole shoot. A piece of string tied rather loosely 
about the middle of the shoot is all that is needed. If the vines 
are to be headed high (18 inches) another tie near the top of the 
stake may be necessary. 

For vines which are making only a moderate growth this is 
all the treatment needed during the summer. Strong-growing 
vines in rich soil, however, should be topped. 

Topping, — The object of this is to force the shoot to send 
out laterals at the right height above the surface of the soil, to 
be used as spurs during the following year. This topping is 
an operation which requires a good deal of judgment. If the 
topping is xlone too soon, laterals will not start, but a new ter- 
minal shoot will be formed. This is not a serious defect, how- 
ever, but simply necessitates a second topping two or three 
weeks later. Neither will the laterals start if the topping is 
done too late, or if they start they will not mature, and the vine 
is weakened by the removal of foliage without any compensating 
advantage. 

Until experience has shown the proper time for the variety 
and locality, it is best to top when the shoot has grown to from 
8 to 12 inches above the top of the stake, and if necessary top 
again later. 

The shoot should be topped within 1 or 2 inches of the top 
of the stake, if the stakes have been chosen and driven as advised 
above (see Fig. 1, c). This will insure the growth of laterals 
just where they are needed for the next winter pruning. 

The vines on which a cane has been left and tied up during 
the preceding winter must be treated a little differently. The 
removal of underground shoots or suckers is the same. Instead 
of thinning out the shoots to a single one, as for the vines just 
described, all the shoots should be left to grow, except those too 
near the ground (see Fig. 2. b). 

As a rule, all shoots between the ground and the middle of 
the stakes should be taken ofif. It is even more important that 
this should be done early than in the case described above. If 
the lower shoots are allowed to become large and then removed, 
not only is the vine weakened by the removal of mature leaves, 
but the stem of the vine is suddenly exposed to the direct rays 



SUMMER PRUNING OF VINES 



359 



of the hot sun and is very liable to injury. This injury does not 
show by the peeling off of the bark as with fruit trees, but by 
a general weakening and dwarfing of the vine. 

The shoots coming from the upper half of the cane are to 
form the spurs for the following winter pruning, and can often 
be left to grow without further treatment. 




Fig. 4. An ideal three-year-old vine after pruning. 

If the growth is very rapid and succulent, however, it is neces- 
sary to pinch them, or the first heavy wind may break them off 
(see Fig. 2, c). 

Pinching consists in the removal of 1 or 2 inches of growth 
at the extreme tip of the shoot. This delays the growth in length 
temporarily and gives the shoot time to strengthen its tissues 
before its length gives too much leverage to the wind. This 
pinching usually has to be repeated at least once. 

Pinching may be replaced by topping a few weeks later, but 
the latter is somewhat weakening to the vine. 

In all summer pruning — that is, removal of green shoots and 
leaves — of young vines, two things should be kept in mind : First, 
that all summer pruning is weakening; second, that the object 
of summer pruning of young vines is to direct the growth as 



360 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



much as possible into those parts which are to become perma- 
nent portions of the mature vine. The weakening effect is ahuost 
nil if the shoots or tips are removed when they are very small, 




Fig. 5. Showing method of bending fruit 
canes to insure growth of shoots 
from replacing spurs. 

but may be very serious if large shoots are removed or heavily 
topped. When a large shoot covered with leaves is removed it 
is a total loss to the vine. When a small shoot is removed the 
food materials which would have gone into that shoot are diverted 
to the shoots that remain, and the vigor and size of the latter are 
increased. 



LONG PRUNING OF VINES gg]^ 

THIRD YEAR 

Winter Pruning. — After the leaves have fallen at the end of 
the third summer every vine should have a well-formed, straight 
stem with two, three, or more canes growing- from the upper part, 
and the formation of the "head" or crown should commence. Any 
vines which have not been brought to this condition must be 
pruned like two or one-year-old vines, as the case may be. 

If the work up to this point has been well done, the formation 
of the head is a simple matter. It consists in leaving two, 
three, or four spurs, arranged as symmetrically as possible near 
the top of the vine. The stronger the vine, as evidenced by the 
number, length, and thickness of the canes, the larger the num- 
ber of spurs and buds that should be left. 

A spur consists of the basal portion of a cane, and normally 
of two full internodes. This leaves two buds besides the base 
bud. The number of buds to leave on a spur depends on the 
strength or thickness of the cane from which the spur is made. 
A thin, or weak, cane should be cut back to one bud or even to the 
base bud. A strong cane, on the other hand, should be left with 
three buds besides the base bud. 

The pruning of each vine requires judgment, and it is impos- 
sible to give an inflexible rule to follow. The ideal of a perfect 
vine should be kept in mind and each vine pruned as nearly in 
accordance with this ideal as circumstances permit. Fig. 3 and 
Fig. 4 represent nearly perfect three-year-old vines consisting of 
two or three symmetrically placed spurs of two buds each near 
the top of the stem. 

Sometimes it is necessary to leave a spur lower down (see 
Fig. 3, b). This spur will be removed the following year after 
it has produced two or three bunches of grapes. Sometimes a 
vine may be very vigorous but have only two canes properly 
placed for making spurs. In this case the spurs should be left 
longer — three buds and even in extreme cases four buds long. 

In stump pruning there is a difference of practice as to low 
heading according to locality. In the interior regions the vine 
is now headed almost at the surface of the ground ; in the coast 
regions there is usually a stump of one to two feet or more. As 
with trees so with vines, the practice is to prune to make lower 
heads than during the early years of California fruit growing. 

Long Pruning.^Some v^arieties grown for market and for 
raisin making do not thrive if pruned by the short-spur system. 
Notable among these are the Sultana, Sultanina, (Thompson's 
Seedless), Emperor and Sabalskanski. There are also a number 
of wine varieties which must be pruned long. Whatever the vari- 
ety of vine and whatever the system of pruning to be ultimately 



OQ2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

adopted, the treatment for the first two and even three years is 
practically identical and is that which has already been described 
in detail. 

Long pruning admits of degrees, but it usually signifies using 
a five or six instead of a four-foot stake and leaving the selected 
canes from eighteen inches to three feet or longer instead of 
cutting back to two or three buds, as in short pruning. These 
long canes are securely tied to the long stakes. 

With varieties needing long pruning the first two or three 
buds next the old wood do not bear fruit, hence the need of 
leaving buds farther removed from the old wood to secure it. 
This habit of the vine invites the practice of growing a long cane 
for fruit and at the same time providing for wood growth for 
the following year's fruiting by cutting another cane from the 
same spur down to two or three buds. By this practice the 
wood which has borne the fruit is cut back to a bud each winter 
and the cane which has grown only wood is pruned long for the 
fruit of the following summer. A modification of the practice 
is to prune the canes from some of the spurs long, and from 
other spurs short, thus making the spurs alternate from wood 
bearing to fruit bearing from year to year. Unless some method 
is adopted to promote the growth of strong canes from near the 
head of the vine, long pruning becomes unsatisfactory. Accord- 
ing to the common way with those vines which are known to 
require longer canes for satisfactory bearing, such canes are 
selected when the vine is well established and two, three, four, or 
more canes four or five feet long are tied up vertically to a high 
stake. This process is repeated the next year and the next, and 
the result is, with the Sultanina at least, that after the second or 
third year all the bearing wood is at the top of the stake, and the 
vine must be pruned short again or suckers and watersprouts 
left as long canes. Neither way is satisfactory. 

Two methods have been successfully used to insure the growth 
of new fruit wood every year in a position where it can be util- 
ized. The first consists in bending the fruit canes into a circle, 
as illustrated in Fig. 5. This diminishes the tendency of the 
sap of the vine to go to the end of the fruit canes. The conse- 
quence is that more shoots start on the lower parts of the fruit 
canes. All the shoots on these canes are made weaker and more 
fruitful by the bending, and at the same time the sap pressure is 
mcreased and causes strong shoots to start from the wood-spurs 
left near the bases of the fruit canes. These shoots are used 
tor fruit canes at the following winter pruning, and new wood 
spurs are then left for the next year. 

The tying and bending of the fruit canes require great care, 
and repeated siickering and removal of watersprouts are neces- 
sary to insure a strong growth of replacing canes on the wood 




T3 
O 



O 
CO 



bO 



363 



364 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Spurs. This method can be used successfully only by skilful 
hands. 

The Other method requires some form of trellis. The most 
practicable trellis is a wire stretched along the rows at about 
13/2 or 2 feet above the surface of the soil. For very vigorous 
vines in rich soil as second wire 12 inches above the first is 
advisable. 

The pruning is the same as for the method just described. 
The fruit canes, however, instead of being bent in a circle and 
tied to the stake, are placed in a horizontal position and tied to 
the wire. The horizontal position has the same efifect as curv- 
ing in promoting the starting of more shoots on the fruit canes 
and the consequent production of more bunches of grapes. At 
the same time the buds on the wood spurs are forced to start, 
and not being shaded they tend to grow vigorously. It is best 
to tie the shoots from the wood spurs in a vertical position to 
the stake, and they should not be topped. This system of prun- 
ing is not only theoretically correct, but is easy to explain to 
pruners, and can be carried out much more perfectly than the 
first method Avith ordinary labor. 

Whatever system of winter pruning is adopted with the Sul- 
tanina, careful summer pruning, suckering, sprouting and top- 
ping are necessary for the best results. This variety has a ten- 
dency to send out large numbers of suckers from below ground 
and watersprouts from the old wood. These shoots are usually 
sterile, grow vigorously, and unless removed in time divert the 
energies of the vine from the fruit and fruit shoots. Two or 
three times during the spring the vineyard should be gone over 
carefully and all sterile shoots which are not needed to balance 
the vine or to replace weak or missing arms should be removed. 
This removal of shoots should be done in such a way that no 
shoot longer than 12 inches is ever removed. If the watersprouts, 
are allowed to grow large their removal weakens the vine. The 
shoots which are to give fruit canes for the following year should 
not be topped. The shoots from the horizontal fruit canes on 
the trellises, however, will set their fruit better and are less likely 
to be broken by the wind if they are pinched or topped early. 

SUMMER PRUNING AND SUCKERING 

Summer pruning or topping of bearing vines is usually prac- 
tised. Some follow the pinching process, by which the terminal 
of the growing cane is nipped off with the thumb and finger when 
it has grown out about two feet. Others wait longer and then 
slash off the ends of the canes with a sickle. The tendency is to 
leave summer pruning until too late and to slash off wood indis- 
criminately, to the injury of the vine. Summer pruning, if done 



HINTS ON PRUNING VINES 365 

early enough, and this would be while the growth is still soft 
at the point of removal, will induce the growth of laterals and 
will shade and improve the fruit, and at the same time thicken 
the growth of the main cane and strengthen its connection with 
the spur. Slashing of canes too late in the season deprives the 
fruit of the service of enough leaf surface for the elaboration of 
the sap, often seriously checks the growth of the vine, and in 
hot regions induces sunburn. 'The first summer pruning should 
be done soon after the bloom, but not during bloommg. The 
second could take place whenever the canes or laterals extend 
beyond the length necessary to shade the grapes. 

Suckering is an important process and usually has to be 
attended to at least twice in the season. It consists in removing 
all shoots from old wood which are not provided for at the pre- 
vious winter pruning. The growth of these suckers takes sap 
which should go to the other canes. All such shoots should be 
rubbed or pulled off while they are still soft; if a sucker puts out 
at a point where it would be desirable to have a spur to balance 
the head of the vine, it should of course be allowed to grow, to 
be cut back to two buds the following winter. By such selection 
of suckers new spurs are secured to replace old and failing ones. 

GENERAL NOTES ON PRUNING 

Longer or shorter pruning produces effects not only upon the 
amount and early ripening of the fruit of certain varieties, but 
upon quality, as shown in the wine. Such effects have to be 
discerned by local observation. 

It is a very difficult matter to lay down any rule for pruning 
a vineyard, so much depends on the age of the vines, the differ- 
ent varieties, and the quality of the soil. A basis on which to 
build a theory on the subject might be found in and through an 
understanding of the quantity of grapes that may be expected 
from a vine, as the secret of pruning is to keep a just medium 
between the production of grapes to the injury of the vine and 
its wood and an overproduction of wood to the detriment of the 
crop. In older vines a proportion should be maintained between 
the vigor of the vines and the crop desired ; each bud may be con- 
sidered good for two bunches of grapes the ordinary size, and 
upon this estimate may be obtained. It must be borne in mind 
that the result of overloading the vine is detrimental to its vigor 
and health, while the reverse will not injure it, but will lessen the 
profits for that season, often giving greatly increased returns in 
after years. 

Close attention should be given to the growth of the wood 
and fruit of the preceding year. If the canes are very large 
and the bunches of grapes poor and there are many suckers, it 



366 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



indicates that more eyes are necessary. On the contrary, if the 
canes are small, and the bunches of grapes numerous and strag- 
gling, and the ripening not even, it indicates that the number 
of eyes left should be less. 

Pruning may be regulated to produce a good second crop of 
grapes or to prevent the formation of a second crop. The second 
crop is often desirable in raisin and table varieties, but unde- 
sirable in wine varieties. 

Attention should be paid to the tools used in pruning. Let 
the blades be kept sharp and thin; large shears are very apt to 
bruise the wood more than small ones. 

Pruning is done after the fall of. the leaves and before the 
swelling of the buds, usually in January and February. Early 
pruning has a tendency to make the vines start growth early, 
consequently in frosty situations pruning is often deferred till 
late in the winter — as late as the middle of March in some cases. 
In such situations it is advised to kave more buds at pruning, 
so if the frost kills the first shoots there are buds below to make 
later growth. This practice has been followed with marked 
advantage in some regions liable to late spring frosts. 

The treatment of vines injured by spring frosts is clearly the 
immediate removal, by a sharp downward jerk, of the frosted 
shoots. P. C. Rossi, a large vineyardist, recites this experience, 
both in the San Joaquin and Santa Rosa Valleys : 

We had all the vines affected by frost entirely stripped of the damaged shoots, 
and we had the pleasure of seeing that, in a short time after, all the dormant buds 
came out finely, with their regular two bunches of grapes ; therefore we have lost 
only one-third of the crop. In order to make careful experiment we left a row 
of vines untouched, and the result proved that the vines that were not stripped 
did not do as well as the others, as the dormant buds in many cases did not come 
out, and those that came out were not healthy and strong, and hardly had any 
grapes. The damaged shoots that were not removed died gradually, and at the 
junction with the cane new shoots came out without any grapes at all. The 
result clearly proves that we will have fully two-thirds of the crop out of the 
frost-bitten vines which were stripped of the damaged canes, while we had hardly 
any first crop and only a second crop on the vines which were not attended to. 



DISEASES OF THE VINE 

One of the most prevalent diseases of the vine in California 
is caused by a fungus which affects leaves, canes, and berries, 
and is locally known as "mildew." This disease is recognized 
by grayish white coloring of the affected leaves, which, as the 
disease progresses, shrivel and dry up; the young cane also black- 
ens and dries, and the berries show whitish patches, which be- 
come darker colored and the berries crack open. The usual rem- 
edy for the trouble is finely-ground or sublimed sulphur applied 
several times during the season, as will be described in the chap- 
ter on diseases of trees and vines. 



VARIOUS VINE TROUBLES 3g7 

The Bordeaux Mixture and other copper preparations are 
sometimes useful upon grape-vines, as will be cited in the chapter 
on plant diseases. 

Coulure, — A frequent misfortune of the vine, and for which 
no remedy is yet known, is coulure, a term signifying the failure 
of the fruit to set or to remain on the cluster. This occurs in 
varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the almost 
complete clearing of fruit from the stem. It is worse with some 
varieties than others and in some localities than others. The 
trouble is believed to arise from various causes. 

There is, also, occurring with more or less frequency, a red- 
dening and death of the vine leaves, supposed to be identical 
with the trouble known to the French as "rougeole." The leaves 
show light-colored spots at first, which afterward turn red and 
finally involve the whole leaf or cane, and sometimes the whole 
vine. It usually occurs in mid-summer, and is not necessarily 
fatal in its effects. 

Root Knot. — An evil occurring on the main stem of the vine, 
generally near the surface of the ground, is an excresence of 
woody character commonly called "black knot." There has been 
much discussion as to the cause of this abnormal growth, without 
full agreement among observers. Some attribute the knots to 
injuries to the stump in cultivation, others to outbursts of sap 
which the short pruning system does not give top growth enough 
to dispose of, and to various other causes. This is analogous to 
the "crown knot" of fruit trees which will be mentioned in the 
chapter on plant diseases. 

Anaheim Disease. — There has prevailed for several years in 
California a mysterious disease of the vine known as the "Ana- 
heim disease," because its evil work first' appeared in that vicinity. 
It destroyed many thousand acres of vines and led to the aban- 
donment of grape growing in some regions in southern California. 
The fullest statements concerning its performance can be found 
in Bulletin No. 2, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of 
Vegetable Pathology, by Newton B. Pierce, 1892, and Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 30, 1895. Fortunately during recent years the trouble 
has been less aggressive but neither its nature nor satisfactory 
treatment has been fully demonstrated. The latest available 
information concerning it and other troubles of the vine can be 
had by application to the University Experiment Station at 
Berkeley. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
GRAPE VARIETIES IN CALIFORNIA 

Large collections of grape varieties have been brought into 
California during the last forty-five years. They were sought 
in all grape countries, and from such wide experimental planting 
a few have survived in popular esteem and are now chiefly grown. 
Being derived from different countries, they came bearing many 
names. Some of these have been preserved, some wholly lost, 
and replaced with local appellations. The result is that our grape 
nomenclature is full of confusion. Some varieties have been iden- 
tified by the means of the standard French grape literature ; 
others are apparently unknown to the compilers of that literature. 
It is, therefore, impossible to-day to determine a number of our 
most popular table and shipping grapes, as well as some of the 
wine varieties. The relative importance of the most popular table 
and raisin grapes is shown in the accompanying tabulation of 
reports from growers secured as described in Chapter XVI, relat- 
ing to the relative standing of orchard fruit varieties. These 
growers Avere asked to name the grapes which they considered 
best worth planting in 1908. 

Grape varieties approved by California growers 



GRAPES. 
Muscat 


Central 
coast 

valleys 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 


Sacramento 
valley and 
foot-hills. 
** 
** 
** 
** 
** 
** 
** 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
** 


San 
va 
fo 


.Joaquin 
ley and 
Dt-hills. 

** 

** 
* 

** 

** 
* 


Southern 
California. 
** 


Tokay 


* 




** 


Sultanina (Thompson) 

Emperor 


** 




** 


Rose of Peru 


* 

* 






* 




* 
* 

* 






* 


Black Hamburg 


* 




* 
* 














* 






* 






*4c 






* 








Campbell's Early 


« 
Hi 







Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. 
Most highly commended. 



368 



GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA ggg 

The last six named are grapes of popular eastern types. They 
are of exceedingly small commercial importance and are chiefly 
grown in Southern California : not because eastern varieties are 
better suited to local conditions there than in other parts of the 
State but because there are more people who enjoy them. 

In order to characterize our leading table grapes, descriptions 
will be quoted from the best available local authorities, as follows : 



Early Black July, syns. Madeleine, Madeline Noir, etc. — "Leaves rather small, 
light green above and beneath ; bunches small and compact ; berries small, quite 
round ; skin thick, black, covered w^ith a blue bloom ; flavor moderately sweet, 
but not rich nor perfumed. The earliest grape, and chiefly valued for dessert on 
that account." — Hyatt. 

White July; syn. Lnglicnga. — "Vine strong-growing and sensitive to frost; 
leaves of medium size, deeply five-lobed, dark green, glabrous on both sides, 
sharply toothed, the _ terminal tooth of each lobe very long and acuminate ; 
bunches of medium size, well filled ; berries of medium size, oval, at first green, 
becoming yellow with overripeness, with thin skin, crisp, firm flesh, and agreeable 
flavor." — Bioletti. The Luglienga, which means July grape, is one of the earliest 
grapes known. 

Early Madeleine; syn. Madeleine Angevine. — "Moderate grower, with long- 
jointed, brown wood; leaf medium, deeply lobed, dark green above, tomentose 
below; young points reddish, woolly, slender; bunch medium, compact, shoul- 
dered ; berry medium, oblong, yellowish green, transparent, rather thick skin, 
sweet and juicy. Vine a shy bearer when frost is prevalent." — Hus)nann. 

Chasselas Dore ; syn. Fontainehleau, Szueetwater. — "A rather vigorous grower, 
with medium or somewhat slender canes of a reddish-brown color; young shoots 
of garnet color, nearly or quite glabrous ; leaves rather below average size, a 
little longer than wide, glabrous above and nearly so below, except for a few 
hairs on the main nerves, with well-marked sinuses, the petiolar one often closed, 
the petiole long, rather slender, and rose-colored ; bunches of medium or over- 
medium size, conico-cylindrical, shouldered, more or less compact ; berries medium 
to large, with firm but tender skin, small seeds ; of delicate flavor and texture, at 
first crisp but becoming soft with full maturity. The grapes are of a clear green 
color, tinged with a beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun." — Bioletti. 

Chasselas Rose. — Fruit resembling foregoing, except that both bunch and 
berries are usually smaller, and flavor is more pronounced. 

Chasselas Victoria. — "Vine vigorous, very short-jointed and brittle, and bears 
well with short pruning; wood grayish yellow, thick and strong; leaf light green, 
deeply lobed and shining ; young shoots with numerous laterals ; bunch very large 
and heavy, often weighing five pounds, shouldered, very compact ; stem brown, 
'very thick; berry medium, round, pale lilac, purple, with lilac bloom, juicy, vinous, 
refreshing." — Husmann. 

Palomino; syn. Golden Chasselas. — "The vine quite largely grown as "Golden 
Chasselas" is undoubtedly identical with the Listan, or Palomino." — Hilgard. 
Vine a fair grower; wood close-jointed; leaf medium, oblong, deeply lobed, bright 
green above, grayish green and tomentose below; stem short, young points with 
reddish tint and woolly ; bunch large, conical, rather loose and shouldered ; berry 
round, full medium, sometimes flat, pale green with yellowish tinge; thin skin, 
juicy and sweet, resembling Chasselas." — JJusmann. 

Black Malvoise.— "Vine a strong grower; wood long-jointed, rather slender, 
light brown; leaf medium size, oval, rather evenly and deeply five-lobed; basal 
sinus moderately open, with parallel sides, upper surface smooth, almost glabrous, 
lower surface lightly tomentose on the veins and veinlets ; bunches large, rather 
loose, branching; berries large, oblong, reddish black with faint bloom; flesh 
juicy, flavor neutral." — Hilgard. Widely grown as an early table grape. 



370 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Mission. — "This variety, grown at the old missions, has never been determined, 
nor its exact source ascertained. It is by some regarded as a most dcHcious table 
grape. It can be found in small areas in every county of the State adapted to the 
grape. Vine a strong grower; wood short-jointed, dull dark brown to grayish; 
leaf above medium size, slightly oblong, with large, deeply-cut, compound teeth, 
basal sinus widely open, primary sinuses shallow and narrow, secondary sinuses 
ill-defined, smooth on both sides, light green below with light, scattered tomen- 
tum." — Hilgard. "Bunches slightly shouldered, loose, divided into many small, 
distinct lateral clusters ; berries medium size, round, purple black, heavy bloom ; 
exceedingly sweet, juicy, and delicious; seeds rather large; skin thin." — Hyatt. 

Muscatel; syn. White Frontigiiaii. — "Vine of medium size, with strong, spread- 
ing canes ; canes reddish-brown, with short internodes ; leaves of medium size, 
thin, five-lobed, glabrous, except for a few hairs on the lower side of the well- 
marked ribs ; bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact ; berries round, golden- 
yellow, becoming amber-colored, very sweet and of marked aroma. Ripens a 
little later than the Chasselas." — Bioletti. 

White Muscat of Alexandria.* — "Vine a short, rather straggling and bushy 
grower, well adapted to short stool pruning, as it forms rather a bush than a 
vine ; wood gray, with dark spots, short- jointed ; leaf round, five-lobed, bright 
green above, lighter green below; young shoots a bright green. The laterals 
produce a second and even a third crop ; bunch long and loose, shouldered ; 
berry oblong, light yellow when fully mature, transparent, covered with white 
bloom, fleshy, with thick skin, very sweet and decidedly musky." — Husinann. The 
leading table grape of California. Rejected for irregular bearing on some mesa 
lands in southern California. 

Muscatel Gordo Blanco. — "Muscatel Gordo Blanco has a closer bunch and 
rounder berry than the Muscat. The skin is softer and the pulp is not quite so 
hard. The berry inclines to be a little darker in color and not nearly so green 
when it is ripe, and I think not quite as long as the Muscat of Alexandria. If 
the Muscat would set as well as the Muscatel, the difficulty would be obviated. 
One very important difference is that when you come to dry them, the Muscat of 
Alexandria loses the bloom very rapidly. The bloom comes off when you come 
to dry and pack them. But the Muscatel does not lose its bloom. The Muscat 
of Alexandria has to be dried a little more than the Muscatel to bring it into a 
keeping condition under the same condition of ripeness." — R. B. Blozvers. 

"The growth of the Muscatel or Gordo Blanco vine is low and spreading, with 
no upright branches in the center ; clusters heavy, and, when perfect, close and 
shouldered; berries round and large (the greatest circumference being at the 
center), a crease often being found at the apex of the berry; color green, or, 
when fully ripe, amber green or yellow. Distinguished from Muscat of Alex- 
andria by low, depressed growth of vine, closer cluster, rounder berries, and by 
thicker and finer bloom. The Muscatel is the choice raisin grape for the San 
Joaquin Valley, and for the interior generally." — Dr. Eisen. 

Huasco Muscat. — A variety brought from Chile, but after wide trial in Cal- 
ifornia, seems not superior to the other White Muscat varieties previously men- 
tioned. Its dense cluster is not well adapted to raisin making. It is held, how- 
ever, to be less subject to coulure. 

Feher Ssagos. — "Vine a strong grower and heavy bearer ; branches erect but 
slender; leaves glossy, entire; bunches medium to small, pointed, and solid; 
berries greenish amber, medium oval, pointed, with thin skin and few small 
seeds; flesh not firm, but dries well and makes a good raisin." — Dr. Eisen. 

Larga Bloom; syn. Uva Larga. — A variety of Muscat said to be named because 
of the length of its berries, but held by some growers to be indistinguishable from 
Muscatel Gordo Blanco. An excellent raisin grape, but now chiefly grown as a 
table fruit in the Santa Cruz Mountains. 



* There is much doubt about the White Muscats as grown in California. Some 
claim inability to distinguish between certain grapes of the Muscat type which are 
being grown in this State under distinctive names; others pronounce them clearly 
different varieties. The matter can not be adjusted at present. 



GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA ^^-^ 

White Malaga. — "Vine a strong grower; wood reddish brown, short-jointed; 
leaf medium, leathery smooth, deeply lobed, light shining green above ; bunch very 
large, loose, shouldered, long; stem long and flexible; berry very large, oval, 
yellowish green, covered with white bloom ; thick skin, fleshy." — Husmann. 
Grown in southern California in situations where the Muscat does not do well; 
also elsewhere as a table grape, and to some extent in San Joaquin Valley for 
raisins. 

Sultana; syn. Seedless Sultana. — "Vine vigorous, upright; leaves large, five- 
lobed, with rather large sinuses, light colored, and coarsely toothed ; bunches 
large, long-cylindrical, with heavy shoulders or wings, well filled when not cul- 
tured, but not compacted ; berries small, round firm and crisp, golden-yellow, and 
without seeds." — Bioletti. In California the variety is apt to have some seeds. 
It has more acid, and therefore greater piquancy of flavor, than Thompson's 
Seedless, but the latter has recently far outstripped it in popularity among 
growers. 

Thompson's Seedless. — Named by Sutter County Horticultural Society, after 
W. Thompson, Sr., of Yuba City, who procured the cutting in 1878, from Ellwan- 
ger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. It was by them described as "a grape 
from Constantinople, named Lady Decoverly." When it fruited in Sutter County, 
it was seen to be superior to the Sultana, and has been propagated largely. It was 
first widely distributed by J. P. Onstott of Yuba City, and others, and is now to 
be found in all parts of the State. The variety is described by Dr. Eisen as 
follows : "Oval ; greenish-yellow ; as large as a Sultana ; seedless, with a thin 
skin ; good, but not strong flavor, and without that acid which characterizes the 
Sultana grape and raisins ; bunches large or very large ; vine an enormous bearer." 
Mr. Bioletti considers the variety identical with the Sultanina of Asia Minor, and 
gives this description : "Vine very vigorous and with large trunk and very long 
canes ; leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellowish-green above and light below, 
generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses, teeth short and obtuse, bunch large, 
conico-cylindrical, well filled, on herbaceous peduncles ; berries under medium, 
eUipsoidal, crisp, of neutral flavor, with moderately thick skin of a fine golden- 
yellow color." 

Flame Tokay; syn. Flame-colored Tokay, Flaming Tokay. — "Vine a strong 
grower, large in all its proportions, wood, joints, leaves ; wood dark brown, 
straight, with long joints; leaves dark green, with a brownish tinge; lightly lobed; 
bunch very large, sometimes weighing eight to nine pounds, moderately compact, 
shouldered; berry very large, oblong, red, covered with fine lilac bloom; fleshy 
and crackling, firm ; ripens late."— Husmann. The leading shipping grape of the 
State, quality low. Defective in color in some localities. 

Black Hamburg. — "Bunches very large, from six to ten inches in length, very 
broad at the shoulders, tapering to a point gradually ; berries very large, round, 
slightly inclining to oval ; skin rather thick, deep purple, very black at maturity ; 
very sugary, juicy, and rich." — Hyatt. A very popular market grape. 

Rose of Peru; syn. Black Prince (?). — "Vine a strong grower, with dark 
brown, short-jointed wood ; leaf deep green above, lighter green and tomentose 
below ; bunch very large, shouldered, rather loose ; berry round, large, black, with 
firm and crackling flesh, ripens rather late ; a very handsome and productive 
variety, of good quality, but not adapted for long shipment." — Husmann. 

Moscatello Pino; syns. Moscatello Nero, Black Muscat. — "Leaves of medium 
size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses, glabrous above, slightly downy 
below, and very hairy on the veins, teeth long and sharp ; bunches large to very 
large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, and winged ; berries very large, on long, 
thin pedicels; skin well colored, thin but tough; flesh soft and juicy, with deli- 
cate Muscat aroma. An excellent table grape. It is a heavy bearer, and pro- 
duces very fine-looking bunches of dark colored grapes. Rather late." — Bioletti. 

Purple Damascus; syn. Black Damascus. — "Vine a medium grower; wood 
light brown striped with darker brown, short- jointed; leaf round, five-lobed, 
smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath ; stem reddish, large, long and 
woody ; bunch large, loose, shouldered ; berry very large, oblong, dark blue, 
covered with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late." — Husmann. 



372 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Purple Cornichon; 53^1. Black Cornichon. — "Vine a heavy grower, with 
thick, light brown, short-jointed wood; leaves large, longer than wide, deeply 
five-lobed, dark green above, and lighter and very hairy below, coarsely toothed, 
and with short, thick petiole ; bunches very large, loose, on long peduncles ; 
berries large, long, more or less curved, darkly colored and spotted, thick- 
skinned, and on long pedicels. Desirable on account of its attractive appear- 
ance, curious shape, excellent shipping qualities, and late ripening." — -Bioletti. 

White Corw/c/j OH.— Resembles Purple Cornichon in shape and flavor, but 
has very thin and tender skin, which makes it better for the table, but poorer 
for shipping. Leaves not deeply cut ; smooth on both sides. 

Emperor. — "Vine a strong, vigorous grower; leaves very large, with five 
shallow lobes, short, obtuse teeth, glabrous above, woolly beneath, light green in 
color; bunches very large, long, conical, loose, with large, dull purple, oval, 
firm berries." — Bioletti. An excellent shipping grape, largely grown by R. B. 
Blowers, of Woodland, Yolo County, by whom its merits were first announced. 
Pronounced unsatisfactory because of irregular setting and non-ripening in 
localities near the coast in northern California, and generally condemned in 
southern California. Seems best adapted to interior situations and is chiefly 
grown for shipping in the San Joaquin valley. 

Black Fcrrara.—A large black grape ; large bunches ; berries cling well to 
the stem, thick-skinned, flavor superior. An excellent local market variety 
and long-distance shipper. 

Gros Cohnan; syn. Dodrelabi. — "Vine strong-growing, with dark brownish 
wood ; leaves very large, round, thick, very slightly lobed, shortly and bluntly 
toothed, glabrous above, close-woolly below ; bunches large, short, well filled, 
but not compact ; berries very large, round, dark blue, with thick but tender 
skin. Remarkable as having the largest berries of any round berry variety 
known, and is probably the handsomest black table grape grown. The grapes 
have good keeping qualities, except that they are liable to crack." — Bioletti. 

Black Morocco. — "Vine a strong grower, with thin, spreading canes ; leaves 
under medium size, very deeply five-lobed. even when very young, the younger 
leaves truncate at base, giving them a semicircular outline, with long, sharp 
teeth alternating with very small ones, glabrous on both sides ; bunches very 
large, short, shouldered, and compact ; berries very large, round, often angular 
from compression, flesh^^ of neutral flavor, dull purple color or colorless in 
the center of the bunch. Remarkable for the number of second-crop bunches 
which it produces on the laterals. Late in ripening and of very fine appear- 
ance; a fairly good shipping grape, but difficult to pack on account of the size 
and rigidity of the bunches. The grapes are of an agreeable crispness, but 
lacking in flavor." — Bioletti. Vine quite subject to root knot. 

Verdal; Aspiran Blanc. — "Vine of medium vigor and rather hardy; canes 
somewhat slender and half erect ; leaves of average size, glabrous on both sur- 
faces, except below near the axils of the main nerves, sinuses well marked 
and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes ; teeth 
long, unequal, and somewhat acuminate ; bunches large to very large, irregular 
long-conical, without any or with small shoulders, well-filled to compact ; berries 
yellowish-green, large to very large, crisp, with thick but tender skin, agreeable, 
but without marked flavor." — Bioletti. Largely grown as a late table grape; 
in good condition ; in some regions as late as November. 

Almeria. — "Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not 
at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately large and 
small; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical; berries from small to 
large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very hard and tasteless." — Bioletti. The 
grape cultivated at the University experiment stations under this name is one 
of the several varieties which are shipped in such large quantities from Malaga 
and Almeria packed in sand or cork-dust. The grapes ripen late and attain 
about 20.0 per cent of sugar. They have remarkable keeping qualities. Vine 
needs long pruning, and is only adapted to hot, interior situations. 



WINE GRAPES FOR CALIFORNIA 



373 



There are many other vinifcra varieties which are grown to a 
limited extent either for raisins or for table use. Among these 
are the Canon Hall Muscat, the White Tokay, White Champion, 
Cinsaut, Zabalskanski, etc., for table use; the White and Black 
Corinth, for drying. With grapes, as with other market fruits, 
the planter usually confines his attention to a very few popular 
kinds. 

EASTERN GRAPES 

Though many of the improved varieties of the grape species 
indigenous east of the Rocky Mountains, and of the hybrids be- 
tween these species and the vinifera, have been introduced in 
California, their growth for table fruit is almost of insignificant 
proportions, and does not constitute even a respectable fraction 
of one per cent of our grape area. The popular taste decidedly 
prefers the vinifera varieties. There is, however, a variety believed 
to be of local origin, which is worthy of mention as follows : 

Isabella Regia. — "A remarkable, giant-leaved, and very prolific sport of the 
Isabella, originating by bud-variation with Mr. J. P. Pierce, of Santa Clara. 
The berries, like the leaves, are of extraordinary size, and when ripe the fruit 
is exceedingly sweet and strongly aromatic. It is, therefore, acceptable as a 
showy, perfumed table grape, much liked by some, but readily surfeiting those 
who are accustomed to the vinifera grapes. The berries are too soft for ship- 
ment to any distance, but all things considered, keep fairly." — Hilgard. Grown 
as the "California Concord" in the Los Angeles region. 



WINE GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 

Progress is being continually made in the propagation of 
varieties yielding wine, and in the manufacture thereof. The 
hosts of considerations involved in this effort are beyond the 
scope of this work and largely beyond the writer's knowledge. 
It is important, however, to have an intelligent discussion of the 
suitability of varieties grown for this purpose, prepared by Mr. 
F. T. Bioletti, as follows : 

1. Vineyard for sweet wine in the interior valleys 

Red. Proportion. 

Grenache % 

Alicante Bouschet i/4 

Tinta Madeira % 

White. Proportion. 

Palomino % 

Beba . . . .- 14 

Boal Vi 



374 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The Grenache and Alicante, Bouschet are heavy bearers with 
short pruning. The former naturally takes a port flavor and the 
latter insures sufficient color. The Tinta Madeira, when pruned 
properly, bears well and will increase the quality of the port wine. 

The Palomino is one of the heaviest and most regular bearers 
grown in California and is peculiarly suited for sherry making. 
It is the principal grape of the Spanish sherry district. The Beba 
bears nearly or quite as well as the Palomino and is of rather 
better quality. Both bear with short pruning. The Boa! bears 
good crops and gives a sweet wine of high quality. 

2. Vineyard for dry wine in the interior valleys 

White. Proportion. 

Valdepenyas Yz 

Lagrain i^: 

St. Macaire i/4 

Red. Proportion. 

Burger Vz 

West's White Prolific 14 

Vernaecia Sarda i/4 

The Valdepenyas has been growing for nearly twenty years 
at the Tulare Experiment Station, and has always given regular 
and good crops with short pruning. The dry red wine made from 
it has been in every way satisfactory and much superior to that 
made from Bouschet, Zinfandel. or any of the varieties usually 
grown in the valley, and approaches more nearly than any other 
variety the wines of the cooler localities. This variety has been 
planted to some extent in the cooler localities, where it is com- 
pletely out of place. In Napa its bearing is unsatisfactory and 
its wine harsh. The vine needs a hot climate to bring out its 
best qualities. The Lagrain and St. Macaire are valuable on 
account of their intense color, which at Tulare is equal to that 
of the Bouschets and is more stable. The St. Macaire is partic- 
ularly recommended on account of its high acidity, which is 
extremely useful for the region. The Gros Mansenc retains its 
acid even better than the St. Macaire, and is also deeply colored, 
but it has not born quite so well. 

The Burger has, fortunately, been planted extensively in the 
hotter parts of the interior, and probably no better choice could 
be made for the production of a cheap, light, neutral dry white 
wine in that region. Its acidity, which is excessive in the coast 
counties, is normal or even low in the interior. For this reason,^ 
and in order to give a little more character, it should be blended 
with such grapes as the West's White Prolific and the Vernaecia 
Sarda, which retain their acidity at Tulare better than any other 
white grapes tested. 



WINE GRAPES FOR CALIFORNIA 075 

3. Vineyard for dry wine in the coast counties 

Red. Proportion. 

Petite Sirah , % 

Beclan 14 

Cabernet Sauvignon 14 

Wliite. Proportion. 

Semillon . . . , i^ 

Colombar 1^ 

Sauvignon blanc 14 



The conditions of soil and climate in the hills and valleys of 
the Coast Ranges are so varied that it is much more difficult to give 
recommendations that will be of general use than in the case of 
the interior valleys. In some parts of some of the valleys the soil is 
so rich and productive that it is possible to grow grapes as cheaply 
as in the interior. The grapes recommended for the interior, 
however, would not in most cases be suitable on the Coast, owing 
to the difference in climate. As a rule the grapes which are suit- 
able to the hill slopes will do well in the valley, making up in 
quantity what they lose in quality. 

Of the many scores of red varieties which have been widely 
grown in this region, the Petite Sirah has undoubtedly given the 
most generally satisfactory results. Some growers are dissatis- 
fied with its bearing, but most report that it produces as much 
as the Zinfandel. Ungrafted, it requires long pruning. Its wine 
is of excellent quality but apt to be somewhat harsh. This harsh- 
ness can be avoided by careful winemaking and by blending 
with a smooth variety such as the Beclan. The finest red wines 
which have ever been made in California are the product of the 
Cabernet Sauvignon. This variety, unfortunately, has been 
rejected almost everywhere on account of its light crops. Very 
satisfactory crops, however, can be obtained if care is taken in 
selecting cuttings for planting and a suitable system of pruning 
adopted. This variety, like most others, moreover, bears better 
when grafted on a suitable resistant stock. It is very much to 
be desired that a certain proportion of this variety should be 
planted in all the coast vineyards which are capable of producing 
a dry red wine of high quality. 

No white grape has given better results in both crop and 
quality than the Semillon. The Colombar (sometimes called the 
Sauvignon vert) has also proved itself a regular bearer, and, 
while not of such high quality as the Semillon, it blends very well 
with that variety and serves to modify its aroma, which is some- 
times excessive. The Sauvignon blanc increases the quality of 
the wine, but like the Cabernet, Sauvignon requires careful cut- 
ting, selection and pruning to give satisfactory crops. 



oyg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

4. Vineyard for dry wine in the cooler parts of the coast counties 

Red. . Proportion. 

Beclan % 

Blue Portuguese 14 

White. Proportion. 

Pranken Riesling % 

Johannisberg Riesling 14 



In certain parts of the coast counties, owing" to the frequent 
occurrence of ocean fogs, many varieties of wine do not ripen 
their fruit properly. By a careful selection of varieties, however, 
good crops of well-ripened grapes may be obtained. It is in 
these localities that the finest light wines, those most nearly 
resembling the wines of the Rhine, can be produced. 

The Beclan has shown itself especially suited to this region, 
and has the great advantage of being very resistant to oidium. 
The Blue Portuguese is a good bearer, ripens easily, and blended 
with Beclan gives a good wine of Burgundy type. The best Ries- 
ling wines are grown near the coast and, undoubtedly, profitable 
vineyards of the Rhine varieties can be grown in this region if 
proper methods of grape-growing and wine-making are adopted. 

Undoubtedly there are many excellent varieties of grapes that 
could be grown with profit which are not mentioned in the fore- 
going lists. The varieties mentioned are simply those which have 
given evidence of being most generally adapted to the more usual 
conditions. 



PART FIVE: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS 
CHAPTER XXIX 



DATE CULTURE IN OUR DESERT AREAS 

Ever since the arid, semitropical regions of the United States 
became known through the narratives of explorers, the date palm 
(Phoenix dactylifera) has been projected as a plant likely to 
demonstrate commercial value in America like that which it has 
held for centuries in the arid regions of Asia and Africa. This 
idea was also cherished even at an earlier date by the Spanish 
missionaries who brought the palm to California, as will be 
described presently. During the last decade the problem of intro- 
ducing and establishing a date-growing industry has been taken 
up more seriously and systematically than ever before and must 
now be looked upon as approaching successful solution. As, how- 
ever, the undertaking is still in an experimental stage and appeals 
to relatively few people as a line of investment, no attempt will 
be made to discuss the date in detail. Instead, citation will be 
made of sources whence the reader who desires them can easil}* 
secure information of date-growing methods in the old countries, 
discussion of their suitability to our conditions and suggestions 
of ways to enter upon date-growing in California.* 

The date palm was brought to California by the padres, and 
the oldest date trees in the State are the survivors of their early 
plantings. Such trees are found at the San Diego Mission. They 
are conjectured to be more than a century old, and they 
have survived drought and neglect, making unsuccessful efifort 
at fruiting, for, according to common report, the fruit does 
not ripen, but whether owing to the unfavorable conditions indi- 
cated, or to lack of fertilization of the bloom, is not known. 
There are trees at Ventura, on the site of the garden of the old 
mission of San Buena Ventura, about forty feet in height and 
ten feet in circimiference at the base, with long, graceful, fern- 
like leaves, which put forth about thirty feet from the ground. 

* The Date Palm and its Utilization in the Southwestern States, by Walter T. 
Swingle, Bulletin 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, 1904. 

Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis, by T. H. Kearney, Bulletin 92, Ibid, 
1906. 

Date Growing in Southern California, by S. C. Mason. Report of Riverside 
Fruit Growers' Convention, State Horticultural Commissioner, Sacramento, 1908. 

377 



378 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The ill success of these old trees in the direction of fruit bear- 
ing probably long prevented further attention to the date as a 
profitable growth. Still there were date palms grown from seed 
of the commercial date planted here and there for ornament or 
out of curiosity, and in due course of time the fruit appeared. 
The first public exhibition of California dates known to 
the writer was made at the Mechanic's Institute Fair, 
in San Francisco, in September, 1877. The fruit was grown on 
the south bank of Putali Creek, the northern boundary of Solano 
County, the situation being slightly above the level of the plain 
of the Sacramento Valley, which lies east of it. The plants were 
grown by the late J. R. Wolfskill, from seed of commercial dates 
purchased in San Francisco, and planted in 1858 or 1859. The 
seed germinated readily, and the young plants were set out in 
a row about one hundred feet south of Putah Creek, on a rich, 
fine, sandy loam, lying about twenty-five feet above the bed of 
the creek. The plants received good cultivation but no irriga- 
tion. This treatment was continued after the property passed 
into the hands of the late S. C. Wolfskill, the plants being allowed 
to remain in the row as originally planted, and they have attained 
great size, considering their crowded condition. They are approx- 
imately six feet apart, have trunks about two feet in diameter, 
and are twenty-five feet or more in height. 

Another bearing date palm stands about a mile eastward of 
the situation just described, near the residence of the late J. R. 
Wolfskill. It was grown from seed of the date of commerce, which 
was planted in 1863, and the tree bore its first fruit in 1880. Near 
it stands a taller date palm, which bears staminate bloom. This 
latter tree was originally one of the row previously described, 
and was successfully moved to its present situation after attaining 
considerable size. 

The fruit of the two bearing palms differs notably in appear- 
ance. That of the first-mentioned tree is of bright yellow color 
and angular outline ; that of the second tree is wine red, with 
smooth surface. 

During recent years the date has fruited at many places in 
California and Arizona. There is little doubt that it will succeed 
in any of the interior regions which have a sufficiently high sum- 
mer temperature, and even the so-called Colorado Desert may be 
dotted with groves of date palms, as portions of it now are with 
groves of the majestic fan palm of California. 

Soils and Waters for the Date. — Until recently the date 
palm has only been planted on good orchard land, but, accord- 
ing to experience in date-growing countries, the tree does not 
require rich soil, but on the contrary, will thrive in a soil poor in 
humus — too poof and too purely mineral for any other fruit tree ; 



HOW TO GROW DATES 



379 



and it produces the finest and best-flavored dates, nourished by 
water too alkaHne for man and beast to drink. These observa- 
tions warrant the trials of the tree which are now being made in 
situations not adapted to other fruits. 

PROPAGATION OF THE DATE 

The date palm grows readily from the seeds of the dried date 
of commerce, and, as has been intimated, the trees now fruiting 
in this State have been obtained in this way. By the use of 
seed one gets, however, only seedlings, and the chance of thus 
securing a really fine variety is probably not greater than with 
other fruit-tree seedlings. In date-growing countries the best 
varieties are propagated by rooting the off-sets, sprouts, or suck- 
ers which appear at the base of the old palms. To secure the best 
foreign varieties such plants must be imported. The first suc- 
cessful enterprise of this kind was accomplished in the summer 
of 1890 by the United States Department of Agriculture, under 
the direction of H. E. Van Deman, then chief of the Division of 
Pomology. The plants were divided between New Mexico, Ari- 
zona and California. The plants for California were sent to the 
Department of Agriculture of the University of California, and 
were planted at the experiment stations at Tulare and at Pomona, 
some of them being subsequently transplanted to the United 
States Date Garden at Mecca in the Colorado desert region* 
Upon fruiting a number of these plants, they seemed to be only 
seedlings and not the best foreign varieties, as represented. 

A full account of this effort and its outcome is given in Bulle- 
tin 29, of the Arizona Experiment Station. 

The United States Department of Agriculture undertook 
arrangements in 1899 for new importations, which were success- 
fully made, but all that was anticipated in securing valuable vari- 
eties was not attained. Director R. H. Forbes, of the Arizona 
Experiment Station, writes in Timely Hints No. 72 (April, 1908) : 

"Several of the Old World varieties which have thus far fruited 
have failed to make good for various reasons. Some have required 
a longer growing season to mature ; others have soured in damp 
or cool weather, and still others do not appeal to the American 
consumer. A few varieties have proved acceptable in all respects, 
and to such as these we must look for future commercial develop- 
ments." 

Of the foreign varieties thus introduced the following have 
been produced in small commercial quantities : Rhars, Tedalla, 
Birket el Haggi and Deglet Noor. 

Growing Palms from Seed. — Seeds taken from the dried dates 
of commerce germinate readily ; in fact, seedlings frequently 



380 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



appear in the gutters of unpaved streets where the seeds have 
been thrown during the rainy season. Director Forbes, of the 
Arizona Station, says that seeds will come up more promptly if 
first stratified. This may be done by taking a gasoline can or 
deep box and placing three inches of sand in the bottom after 
making a number of holes in it for drainage. The seeds are placed 
upon this layer and the can or box filled with sand, the whole 
then being put in a sheltered place and kept moist for three to 
six weeks, when the seeds will be soft and ready for prompt 
growth when planted. The seedlings may be started in nursery 
rows for transplanting after one to three years, or if frequent 
irrigations may be relied on, in the field where the trees are to 
remain. 

Dr. W. T. Swingle, whose work on date growing has already 
been cited, gives the following suggestions on the growing of seed- 
lings and their subsequent handling to determine sex and to select 
bearing palms of desirable type : 

The seed should be planted rather thickly in well-drained b^ds of fertile 
soil, free from alkali. These beds should be watered frequently, as the young 
date seedlings need an abundance of moisture. If properly cared for, the 
seedlings will reach a height of from 12 to 18 inches the first year and can be 
transplanted into the permanent orchard the second year. 

These seedlings should be set out in rows about 30 feet apart and placed 
5 or 6 feet apart in the row. Ordinarily field crops can be grown between the 
rows until long after the palms come into bearing. After three or four years, 
when the young palms begin to flower, the male trees can be dug up and 
destroyed, thus thinning out about half of the trees. Then when the female 
trees come into fruit, those which yield decidedly inferior fruit can also be 
removed, so that finally about one-fourth of the original number of seedlings 
will be left standing. The spaces between the seedlings will be irregular and 
offshoots can be taken from the best sorts and planted where the largest gaps 
occur. By preventing offshoots from growing on the poorer sorts they will 
yield more fruit and finally can be destroyed and replaced by offshoots from 
some of the better sorts. In this way, by degrees, the orchard can be improved 
without expense for offshoots aside from the labor of planting them. 

Rooting Suckers. — Suckers taken off in warm weather and 
watered freely usually take root readily. Care should be taken 
not to let the plants dry. Director Forbes gives these points : 
Suckers should not be taken from the parent tree until they have 
attained a diameter of 5 to 6 inches and a weight of 15 to 20 
pounds. Suckers should be removed by cutting in and down 
along the line of cleavage between them and the main trunk, with 
a strong chisel or a fiat-pointed bar. If possible the cut should 
be carried down so as to bring away at least one or two sound 
roots. The leaves should be closely pruned and for shipment the 
cut bases had better be protected against drying out by layer of 
wet moss or similar material. In planting, the sucker should be 
set in previously irrigated and well settled soil to the depth of 
its greatest diameter, taking care that the center of the palm is 
not below the irrigating water level. 



BLOOM OF THR DATE PALM 



381 



For convenience in irrigating", a shallow l:)asin of earth shonld 
be made about the sucker, in which, to lessen evaporation and 
the rise of alkali, a mulch of fine barnyard litter three or four 
inches deep should be spread. The soil about the newly trans- 
planted suckers should be kept constantly wet by frequent irriga- 
tions. Suckers should be cut and transplanted April to August, 
inclusive, but not during or approaching cool weather. 

Bearing Age of the Date. — There is much difference in the 
ages at which the seedlings have come in fruit in the hands of 
different growers. Fruit has been reported on seedlings six years 
old and even on plants four years from the seed. Such early 
maturity must not, however, be generally expected. 

Blooming of the Date. — The date palm is dioecious, and, its 
staminate (male) and pistillate (female) blooms appearing on 
different trees, it requires the association of the two for perfect 
fruiting. Growing plants from seed, as already stated, leaves 
the grower in doubt as to the sex of his plants until they bloom. 
Usually one obtains a large preponderance of male plants. In 
propagating from suckers the new tree is of the same sex as the 
parent. It is advised to have about one male to twenty female 
trees. The pollen can be transported long distances and main- 
tains its vitality for a long time. 

Artificial fertilization of the bloom of the bearing palm has 
been found of advantage in this State and was probably first prac- 
ticed by J. R. Wolfskin. Though the staminate tree was but a 
few feet away from the pistillate, the male bloom was broken in 
pieces and hung to the leaves of the female tree near to the pistil- 
late flowers. It was found that the parts of the date cluster which 
are nearest to the suspended male blooms have more perfect fruit 
than the more distant parts. Other California date growers have 
had similar experience. 

In Winters the bearing date palms bloom in April and May, 
and the fruit ripens in November. 

Beauty of the Date Palm. — The date palm in fruit is a beau- 
tiful sight. The glaucous green pinnate leaves arch outward. 
Between two of these emerge the bright orange-yellow polished 
fruit stalks, which divide into a spray of slender bright yellow 
stems a foot or so in length; and thickly set upon these in clusters 
are the various colored fruits covered with a rich bloom. It is a 
sight not easily forgotten by a lover of nature, and especially by 
one reared in a northern zone, the characteristic vegetation of 
which is so different. 



CHAPTER XXX 
THE FIG 

The fig is, perhaps, the grandest fruit tree of California. Its 
majestic size and its symmetry make it a crowning feature of the 
landscape, and its dense foliage renders the wide space embowered 
by it a harbor of refuge from mid-summer heat, both for idlers 
and for the industrious. On adjacent farms in Pleasant's Valley, 
Solano County, there are large fig groves ; one serves as a shelter 
for the packers of fruit from the contiguous orchard, and the other 
incloses and shades a croquet ground. Measurements of large 
trees are abundant, for old trees are numerous in the interior of 
the State, both in the valley and on the slopes of the Sierra 
foot-hills. At Knight's Ferry, in Stanislaus County, there is a 
fig tree sixty feet in height, with branches of such length as to 
shade a circle seventy feet in diameter. The trunk at the base 
is eleven feet around, and nine feet at a distance of three feet 
from the ground. A little higher the trunk divides into seven or 
eight large branches, each of which is nearly five feet in circum- 
ference. At thirty feet from the ground the limbs are seven 
and eight inches through. The largest grove is in the neigh- 
borhood of Knight's Ferry, and consists of fifteen massive black 
fig trees, which, though set sixty feet apart, mingle their branches 
overhead and form a network through which, in the summer, 
hardly a beam of light can pass. 

Such groves are frequently seen in the older settled parts of 
the State. Perhaps the most interesting single fig tree is that on 
Rancho Chico, quite near the residence of General Bidwell. It 
was planted in 1856, and has attained a marvelous growth. One 
foot above the ground the trunk measures eleven feet in circum- 
ference; the widespreading branches have been trained toward 
the ground and, taking root there, banyan-like, they now form 
a wonderful inclosure over one hundred and fifty feet in diameter, * 
the tree is loaded every year. 

The crop on these large trees is proportionate to their size 
and, entering their area in the morning during the ripening season, 
one can scarcely step without crushing figs, though the fruit may be 
gathered up each day and placed in the sun for drying. 

REGIONS SUITED FOR THE FIG 

Though there are still many fine points to be determined as 
to what situations and conditions favor the production of the 
very finest figs,' and there are indications that there is possibly 

382 



SOILS FOR THK FIG 



383 



much difference, it may be truly said that a very small part of 
the State is really unsuited to its growth. If one shuns the im- 
mediate coast of the upper part of the State, where the summer 
temperature is too low for successful ripening, and keeps below 
the altitude of the mountains where winter killing of the tree is 
possible, he can grow figs almost anywhere. 

Selections of varieties adapted to particular situations has 
much to do with the success of the fig, as with other fruits, and, 
therefore, a broad statement of adaptability must be received 
with such an understanding. The intrusion of the coast influ- 
ences borne eastward by the winds of summer, as described in 
Chapter I, gives a night temperature too low for ripening of some 
varieties, which turn sour upon the trees. Present indications 
are that the finest dried figs, having the thinnest skin and the 
nearest approach generally to the fig of Smyrna, the commercial 
standard for dried figs, will be produced in the drier portions of 
the valleys and foot-hills. Even in Southern California fig-souring 
is quite prevalent, and selection of locations must be circumspectly 
made. More time is requisite for the final demonstration of these 
matters, although years have already been devoted to the problem. 

SOILS FOR THE FIG 

As it must be left with the future to determine the mooted 
point as to the influence of special situations upon the bearing 
of the fig, and the more minute characteristics of the fruit, so 
more experience is needed to demonstrate the comparative effects 
of different soils. It might seem, from the fact of the age of our 
trees in different parts of the State, that time enough had elapsed 
to determine these points, but it must be remembered that all 
our oldest trees are of the very hardy variety found at the mis- 
sions, and conclusions drawn from them as to all varieties are 
unsafe. 

The fig will thrive in any soil that one would think of select- 
ing for any of our common orchard trees, and, in fact, the fig suc- 
ceeds on a wider range of soils than any one of them. One is 
safe in planting figs for family use, or for marketing, wherever 
the summer temperature is high enough to ripen the fruit well, 
and the winter temperature high enough to preserve the life of 
the tree. This applies merely to the successful growth of the 
fig; to secure ripening at a time when the fruit can be profitably 
sold for table use, is another question. 

The selection of soils especially suitable to the production of 
the best figs for drying involves more considerations than rule 
in the growth of table fruit. For drying, the fig should attain 
a good size, but should not contain excess of moisture. In some 
parts of the State the first crop of figs in the season has been 



384 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



found unfit for drying. The second, and, in some localities, the 
third crop, appearing later in the season, when the moisture 
supply of the soil is reduced, dry well. This condition of the first 
crop is, however, affected by local conditions, for there are places 
in the Sierra foot-hills where the soil moisture has to be replen- 
ished early in the season by irrigation to prevent even the first 
crop from falling prematurely, and subsequent irrigation brings 
to perfection the second and third crops. The fig tree needs 
plenty of moisture in the soil, but not too much. As with other 
fruits, if the soil does not retain the needed amount naturally, it 
must be supplied by irrigation wisely administered. 

PROPAGATION OF THE FIG 

The fig grows very rapidly from cuttings, and this is the chief 
method of propagation. Cuttings should be made while the tree is 
fully dormant, in the winter, of well-matured wood of the previous 
season's growth, giving preference to the stocky, short-jointed 
shoots, and making the cuttings about six to eight inches in length. 
The cut at the lower end should be made at the joint, or where solid 
wood is found. The planting and care of the cuttings is essentially 
the same as of vine cuttings, already described. If well made and 
cared for, a very satisfactory growth is made the first season, and 
the trees are ready for planting out in permanent place the follow- 
ing season. 

Single Bud Cuttings. — If one desires to multiply a new variety 
very rapidly, single-eye cuttings will make plants. This is, also, 
analogous to single-eye grape cuttings, as already described. 

Budding the Fig. — The foregoing means enable one to propa- 
gate a fig so rapidly that recourse is not had to budding, as in 
propagating other trees ; still, budding is feasible, either on small 
plants or on young shoots of old trees which it is described to bud 
over. 

The fig may be budded by the common shield method, as used 
for ordinary fruit trees, and described in Chapter IX, but owing to 
the tendency of the fig bark to shrink in drying, the bud should be 
closely bound in with a narrow waxed band, to exclude the air. As 
the bark is thick, it is often desirable to cut out a little of the edges 
closest to the bud when in place. 

Another method of budding the fig is by annular or "ring bud- 
ding," a method also relied upon with the walnut and chestnut. 
Annular budding is done in the fall. A circular ring of bark is 
taken off from the stock by the aid of a budding knife, by running 
two circular cuts around the stock, and a longitudinal one between 
the two circular cuts ; the ring of bark taken off must be at least one 
inch wide, and from that up to two inches. A like ring of bark is 
taken off in the same manner from a scion of the variety to be bud- 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE FIG 335 

decl in, and from a branch of the year, or preceding one, well in sap, 
and having about the same diameter as the stock. This ring should 
have on it one or two buds. It must fit exactly the space prepared 
on the stock, and more particularly at the lower circular cut, so that 
both barks will exactly unite at that point. When the ring is too 
long, a little bit of it might be cut o& with a very sharp knife till it 
fits well ; if the ring is too large for the stock, a longitudinal strip 
would be cut out, and if too narrow, such a strip, if with a bud on 
so much the better, will have to be used to fill up the empty space. 
One must be very careful while drawing the knife around the stock 
not to go too deep into the wood to injure the cambium layer, or to 
weaken the stock. Tie a bandage pretty firmly over the whole. 
After two or three weeks the bandage has to be taken ofi, and, in 
the ensuing spring, the top of the stock or limb is cut down three 
inches above the budding. 

Another way of working such trees is by "whistle budding," 
which is done in the spring, when the sap is well up. The stock and 
scion must be both of the same size and well in sap. The top of the 
stock is cut down to several inches from the ground ; a circular ring 
of bark is then taken off, and a corresponding ring from the scion, 
but without a longitudinal cut, is put in its place. In inserting it 
care should be taken that the top of the stock, which is to receive 
the ring from the scion, be very smooth, and the latter is then easily 
pushed down around it and bandaged. In the case of the fig, it is 
especially desirable to use the latter method when the sap is up, 
because if the top of the stock is not removed, the exudation from 
above sours around the bud and prevents the union of stock and 
bud. 

To prepare an old tree for budding over, the limbs may be cut 
back in February within two to six feet of the trunk, covering the 
ends with paint of grafting wax. Allow two shoots to start near 
the end of each of these amputated limbs, and rub ofif all other 
shoots. Bud the shoots when they attain the thickness of one's 
finger, taking green buds from the growth it is desired to introduce, 
or let them grow and bud in the fall, whichever is most convenient ; 
or bud in the growing shoot, and rebud in the fall where buds have 
failed. 

Grafting the Fig. — The fig can be grafted by the cleft-graft 
method, as described in Chapter IX. but the cleft should be made to 
one side of the stub and not through the central pith. Especial 
care must be taken in excluding the air. Fill the cleft between the 
scions with warm wax, Avhich will run in and fill the cavity. Then 
bind the stock with wax bands, taking the greatest care to cover 
the exposed wood surface, the cut end of the bark (which in the fig 
is very prone to shrink and draw back), and as far down the stock 
as the bark has been split. 



386 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Cut the shield from a limb of about Yi inch in diameter, length of shield 
about iJ/2 inches, its thickness from Y^ to Y^ inch, and its bud near the middle 
of the shield. Do not remove the wood from behind the bud. Make a cut 
in the stock, through the bark and into the wood, its length and width a little 
greater than those of the shield. Insert the shield into the cut, so that the 
inner bark of the top of the shield and cut will coincide, so that one side of 
shield and cut — and both sides, if practicable — will coincide. I'iace the flap 
of the cut over the shield (removing a part of the flap so the bud will not be 
covered), and fasten flap, shield and stock together very firmly with twine, 
and protect them with paper tied around them. They may be grafted in that 
mode, whenever dormant buds are found, for the shields. Twenty-four shields 
were inserted at several times, during one spring, and there was only one 
failure. 

A method of bark grafting applied to the fig by George C. 
Roeding of Fresno and approved by him after several years of 
successful experience, affords an excellent way of grafting over 
large trees. It does away with splitting the stock and therefore 
hastens the barking-over of an amputation. The branches to be 
grafted are cut off within 18 to 24 inches from the point of diverg- 
ence from the main body of the tree, allowing at least two branches 
to remain, one of which should be on the southwest, if possible, so 
that the grafts will be protected from the afternoon sun. 

After having sawed off' the branches, the stumps neatly 
smoothed over, with a sharp knife, so as to have a clean, smooth 
surface, particularly along the edge, two, four or six scions should 
be placed on each stock, the number, of course, being regulated by 
the size of the stump. Cut out a V-shaped piece of bark. The dis- 
tance from the top of the stock to the point of the V should be 
about XYx inches. 

Another method is to make slightly outward and downward 
cuts into the stub with a sharp knife, so as not to cause a split, 
but rather deep, clean cuts, into which the wedge-shaped scions 
are firmly pushed and a cord wound around the stub to hold all 
strongly in place before waxing thoroughly. This form of grafting 
will be shown in the chapter on the walnut, for it is very success- 
fully used on that tree also. 

The form of side-graft with a saw-cut as described in the chapter 
on the peach is also available. A form of bud-graft, that is, bud- 
ding with a large shield into old bark, is also successful. Judge 
Rhodes of San Jose describes his method, both with the olive and 
the fig, in this way : 

Select a scion of the proper size, never be smaller than an ordi- 
nary lead pencil. As a rule scions from two-year-old wood, with 
very little pith and with a diameter of about Yz inch, will give the 
best results. The' scions should have a sloping cut at the lower 
end, with the bevel all on one side and not like a wedge. The 
bevel should be as long or a little longer than the V-shaped 
opening in the stock and should fit snugly into this opening, so 
that the bark on both edges of the scion touches the bark of the 



PLANTING AND PRUNING THE PIG 387 

Stock. After the scions are placed, wrap tightly with five or six- 
ply cotton twine, and cover the wounds as well as the stub with 
liquid grafting wax. Wax the top of the scion to prevent drying 
out. If waxed cloth is used it must be removed before the warm 
weather sets in or the bark will be smothered and will die. After 
the scions have become well united, which takes from two to 
three months, the strings should be cut. This method of grafting 
can not be made successfully until the sap begins to flow, say 
from the latter part of February to the first of April. The scions 
should never be more than four inches long. 

Seedling Figs. — Figs are readily grown from the imported fig 
of commerce. Dr. Gustav Eisen of San Francisco, our leading 
writer on the fig, gives the following explicit directions for growing 
the fig from seed : 

Cut open imported Symrna figs ; wash out the seeds in warm water, those 
that float are empty and worthless ; those that sink are generally fertile. Sow 
these in shallow boxes of sand and loam mixed, and place in a frame under 
glass. In three weeks they will be up and must be very sparingly watered. 
Set out next season in nursery row. In three years from the seed such plans 
will be found to bear. 

The tendency of the plants grown from Smyrna figs is to 
revert to the wild type, and there is a small chance of secttring good 
varieties. 

PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG 

The chief point to observe in planting the fig trees is to get 
them far enough apart, because of the great spread of branches 
which they attain. Of course they may be planted twenty feet 
apart if the owner intends to remove alternate rows, but to plant 
at forty feet, or even farther apart, with other fruit trees or vines 
between, on the plan of alternate or double squares, described 
in Chapter X, would be the best way to lay out a fig orchard — 
the intermediate growths to be removed as the figs require more 
room. 

Very handsome effects are produced by planting the figs along 
avenues to inclose orchards of other fruits. Fig trees are grand 
for shade around buildings, and wild or Capri figs are desirable 
to plant in this way for a purpose which will be mentioned later. 

In transplanting fig trees extra care must be taken to keep the 
roots from drying. After planting, the stem must be diligently 
guarded from sunburn, to which it is liable in the warmer parts 
of the State. 

Pruning the Fig. — The fig requires very little pruning after 
its shape is outlined. There is difference of opinion and practice 
as to the height at which the head should be formed ; some head 



388 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



nearly as low as already advised for common orchard trees ; others, 
having in mind the immense thickness attained by the limbs, and 
their disposition to droop, head as high as four to six feet, which 
is the better way to proceed when the trees are wide-spaced and 
expected to attain large size. 

In shaping the tree, branches should be brought out at a 
distance apart on the stem, so that there may be room for their 
expansion without crowding each other, and care should be taken 
not to leave too many main limbs. Three limbs, well placed 
around the stem, are enough. The branches putting out on the 
under side of these limbs should be suppressed, and those grow- 
ing upright, or obliquely upright, retkined. As the fig has pithy 
shoots it is very desirable to cover all cuts with paint or wax. 
After getting the general shape of the tree fixed, there is little 
need of pruning except to remove defective branches or those 
which will cross and interfere with each other and to prevent 
the interior of the tree from becoming too dense. It is better to 
remove branches entirely than to shorten them; or, in shortening, 
always cut to a strong lateral. Stubs left at pruning are very 
undesirable in the fig. 

. Cultivation. — Young fig orchards are cultivated as are other 
fruit areas. Old trees which completely shade the ground are 
usually left to themselves, without cultivation, except cutting out 
weeds. Irrigation is governed by local conditions, as already 
stated. In starting the orchard it is exceedingly important that 
the young trees should not be allowed to suffer from drying out 
of the soil. 

Bearing Age of the Fig. — The fig often, and, perhaps, usu- 
ally, begins its bearing very early, in the most favorable situa- 
tions in this State. Some fruit is often had the second year, and 
a crop worth handling the third year. Still, it is wiser. not to 
calculate definitely upon such returns, for four or five years some- 
times pass without a satisfactory crop. We have, also, instances 
of "barren fig trees," which persist in "dropping their untimely 
figs," year after year, during their youth. How much of this 
is due to variety, and how much to locality, is not definitely known, 
but successful fruiting has been secured by grafting over barren 
trees, using scions from bearing trees growing adjacent to them. 
This has no relation to the subject which will be next discussed. 



THE SMYRNA PIG 

CAPRIFICATION* 



389 



Caprification consists in suspending the fruit of the wild or 
Capri fig in the branches of the tree of improved variety, that the 
pollen may be carried by an insect from the former to the latter. 
Until the present decade California has never been able to pro- 
duce dried figs equal to the fig of commerce or the Smyrna fig. 
This was. at first, thought to be due to lack of the Smyrna variety. 
After painstaking effort this variety was introduced. Trees grew 
readily from the cuttings ; fruit appeared upon them and dropped 
before maturity. Doubt then arose as to whether importers had 
not been deceived, and other efforts were made which resulted 
in other importations. These also cast to the ground immature 
figs. Discussion turned then upon the fact of caprification — the 
necessity of having the fruit of the Capri or wild fig adjacent to 
the fruit of the Smyrna fig so that insects from the Capri might 
visit the fruit of the improved variety and pollinate its inclosed 
flowers, which, appearing upon the inner wall of an almost closed 
cavity, could not be reached by ordinary visiting insects. The wild 
trees had already been introduced and were freely growing near the 
others, but this fact availed nothing — the figs fell just the same 
from the Smyrna trees. In 1890 Mr. George C. Roeding, of Fresno, 
essayed to demonstrate the fact that the lack of the pollination 
was the secret of failure, and he succeeded in introducing the 
Capri pollen into the eye of the Smyrna fig, and secured thereby 
the retention of such pollinated figs upon the trees, and when 
ripened and dried these had the Smyrna character. The demon- 
stration was complete that California could not grow Smyrna figs 
without the pollinating agency found to be essential to success 
in Smyrna. This agent is a minute wasp called the blastophaga 
— an insect so minute that it can make its way through the mesh 
of ordinary cheese-cloth and can enter the almost closed eye of 
the young fig — so minute that a magnifying glass is necessary 
to give one any clear idea of its outline. For years constant 
effort has been made by various parties to secure the introduction 
of this insect. Urgent appeals were made to the United States 
Department of Agriculture, after private undertakings failed, to 
secure the insect alive or otherwise in form for permanent resi- 
dence. In April, 1899, the feat was accomplished, the blas- 



*In a general treatise like this only a passing reference can be made to this 
subject, which is perhaps the most interesting in the whole realm of entomo-horti- 
culture. The fig grower should secure the following monographs: "Smyrna Fig 
Culture in the United States," by L. O. Howard. Year Book of U. S. Dept. of Agr. 
for 1900; "The Pig — its History, Culture and Curing," by Gustav Eisen, Bulletin No. 
9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1901; "The Smyrna Fig at Home and 
Abroad," by George C. Roeding, Fresno, Cal., 1903; "Some Points in the History of 
Caprification in the Life History of the Fig," by W. T. Swingle; Report of River- 
side Fruit Growers' Convention, 1908; "The Latest Development in Fig Culture," 
by G. P. Rixford, Pacific Rural Press, December 18 and 25, 1909. 



390 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



tophagas being received from Algiers as collected and forwarded 
by W. T. Swingle to Mr. Roeding. Their offspring appeared in 
large numbers during the summer and fall of the same year. On 
the basis of this achievement the commercial production of a 
true Smyrna fig in California began and has rapidly developed. 
Mr. Roeding gave his product the musical patronymic "Cali- 
myrna," which now adheres also to the variety from which it is 
produced. 

It is an interesting fact that after this strenuous work was 
successfully accomplished it was ascertained that the fig wasp 
had really reached California without assistance before 1880 and 
has been established in San Joaquin count}^ since that remote date. 

To avail himself of the benefits of caprification, every grower 
of varieties which require it must also grow suitable Capri figs 
and establish the insect in them. California nurserymen supply 
these and the insects also when the trees are of suitable age to 
receive them. 

FOES OF THE FIG 

The fig is freer from insect pests than other fruit trees, and 
yet it is a mistake to consider it wholly free. The writer has 
seen the leaves well covered with a Iccanium scale and has found 
a moth larva boring in the pith of the young shoots ; still, prac- 
tically, the fig tree in California has not yet suffered from insects. 

The gophers have a pronounced appetite for fig roots, and their 
presence should be carefully watched for. Swine have a liking 
for fig bark. The trees of the grand grove planted at Hock Farm, 
on the Feather River, by General Sutter, were completely girdled 
from the ground as high as a pig could reach by standing on its 
hind legs. Figs make good food for hogs, and plantations have 
been made with this in view, but if the hogs are to be harvesters, 
it will be well to protect the stems of the trees from them. 

VARIETIES OF THE FIG 

The fig presents what may be termed an aggravated example 
of the confused nomenclature which pervades California fruits. 
Dr. Eisen has made a commendable effort to bring order out of 
chaos by a study of foreign records and locally-grown fruit, and 
has published a catalogue of varieties chiefly grown in California, 
with descriptions of each in Bulletin 5 of the Division of Pomology 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.* The following enumera- 
tion is largely restricted to varieties which have been commercially 
propagated: 

* A much fuller discussion of fig varieties is to be found in Dr. Bisen's Bulletin 9, 
already cited. Many notes are made of the fruiting in the late John Rock's collection 
on the grounds of the California Nursery Co.", at Niles, Alameda County, of many 
introduced varieties which have not been commercially propagated in California. 



FIGS GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 



391 



Adriatic— Size, medium, romidish ; neck medium; stalk short; ribs obscure; 
eye open, with red iris ; skin very thin, greenish in the shade, yellowish in 
the sun; pulp bright strawberry red or white, with violet streaks in' the meat; 
varies in quality according to location. This has been found very useful in 
California, but is not of fine flavor when dried. It requires rich soil, with con- 
siderable moisture and a very large percentage of lime. This variety is not 
identical with that known in Italy as Adriatic. 

Agen. — Medium size, roundish ; skin bright green, cracking longitudinally 
when ripe, showing white bands ; flesh deep red, very rich ; a good bearer, but 
very late, requiring a long hot season. 

Angeliqiie; syn. Angelica. — Medium, pyriform ; ribs prominent; yellowish 
white; pulp white, with rose-colored center; leaves five-lobed. A very good 
variety in some of the coast valleys. 

Bardajic. — "Very large, obovate, pyriform, long neck and stalk, skin very 
thin, grayish green ; pulp rich crimson, fine table fig and largest of Smyrna 
class." — Roeding. 

Bcllona. — Large, pyriform, dark purple, red flesh, fine flavor when dried. 

Black Bulletin Suiyiiia. — Large, obtuse, pyriform, short neck, long stalk, 
light purple, flesh pink, luscious. 

Black Smyrna. — Small, globular, short stem, pulp dark amber, good for 
home use. 

Boitrjassotte, White: syn. Baniissotte, White. — Medium, round and some- 
what flattened, eye large, sunk ; skin waxy, green ; pulp bright red. A very fine 
fig. Tree very large. 

Brozvn Turkey. — Large, turbinate, pyriform, with hardly distinct neck ; stalk 
short ; apex flattened ; ribs few ; slightly elevated ; eye medium, slightly open, 
scales large ; skin smooth, greenish to violet-brown in sun, with darker ribs ; 
pulp dark rosy red, quality good, and tree a good bearer. Brunswick is fre- 
quentl}' confounded with this fig. ' A distinct variety is grown in Vacaville as 
Brown Turkey, which is named by Dr. Eisen "Warren." 

Brunszvick. — Very large, pyriform, with swollen cheeks, one of which is 
larger than the other ; apex very obtuse ; neck and stalk very short ; ribs dis- 
tinct, but not much elevated ; eye medium, open ; skin pale amber, with violet 
tint ; pulp amber. An early, large fig, but lacking flavor. Very common ; re- 
quires rich, moist soil. 

Celeste, White.- — Very small, amber ; suitable for preserves. 

Celeste, Blue; syn. Violette. — Small, ovate, turbinate; ribs few, but distinct, 
especially near apex; eye raised, rough; color dark violet amber, without red- 
dish blush ; bloom confined to the neck ; skin thin ; pulp deep rose ; meat amber, 
sweet, but lacking in flavor. 

Checker Injur. — "Roundish, oblate, short neck, flesh reddish, skin greenish 
yellow, very thin, dries well." — Roeding. 

Col. de Signora Bianco. — Medium sized, pyriform; long ribbed neck; skin 
green, changing to yellow ; flesh deep red, very rich and luscious a strong 
grower; late, suited for a warm region. 

Dauphine. — Large, round turbinate, purple with blue bloom ; flesh amber. 

Doree. — Medium, oblong, bright yellow, flesh rose-color. 

Dottato. — Medium ovate, pyriform; neck well set; stalk very short or none; 
ribs low ; skin smooth ; eye medium ; skin thin, yellowish green, meat white ; 
pulp yellowish amber, sometimes with violet flush. One of the best figs for 
drying ; tree a strong grower, requiring moist, rich soil. Lately introduced into 
California. 



392 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Drap d'Or. — Large, pyriform, with very low neck and stalk ; ribs elevated ; 
apex obtuse and concave ; color light violet-reddish amber, not dark ; pulp 
rosy red. A fig of very fine quality ; especially useful for confections and 
crystallizing; not identical with Brunswick. 

Du Roi. — Above medium ; round, pyriform ; stalk very short ; eye large or 
variable, with scales standing out ; skin smooth, pale bluish green ; pulp amber, 
with rosy streaks and exceedingly minute seeds. Related to Marseillaise and 
Athens, and one of the very best figs in California for drying. 

Early Jlolet. — Small to very small, round turbinate; neck distinct but 
short ; stalk medium to long ; ribs distinct, elevated ; skin rough ; violet-brown, 
with thin pearl-colored bloom ; pulp red. This variety bears almost continuously 
and is preferable to the Ischias and Celeste. 

Genoa, IVhite. — Above medium, pyriform ; neck small ; stalk short ; ribs in- 
distinct ; skin downy ; eye very small ; skin pale olive-green ; pulp pale rose. 
One of the better figs, quite distinct from Marseillaise. 

Gentile. — Very large ; ovate pyriform ; neck short but distinct ; stalk very 
short ; skin uneven, with ridges ; eye very large, open, with projecting scales ; 
color greenish yellow, spotted with white ; pulp amber, streaked with rose ; 
seeds few but very large. Only the first crop of this variety ripens. It is of 
the San Pedro tribe. One of the best early figs. 

Grosse Grise Biferc. — Medium ovate pyriform ; neck very short ; stalk short ; 
ribs distinct; eye small; skin downy, dark violet amber, pale olive in shade; 
the bloom is separated by a distinct line from the apex ; pulp deep red. A 
tender, good fig. 

Hirtu du Japan. — Medium size, roundish with long stalks ; skin very dark ; 
flesh opaline ; quality best ; very prolific. 

Ischia, Black. — Small; neck short; stalk medium; skin smooth; color dark 
violet black, greenish around the apex; neck dark; eye medium, open; bloom 
thin, dark blue ; pulp red. Of fair quality but small size. 

Ischia, IVhite. — Size below medium, round, with small neck ; stalk very 
short ; eye open ; skin smooth, bluish green, with brown flush ; pulp rosy red. 
Common in California. 

Kassaba. — "Medium to large, globular, flattened, short neck and stalk, pale 
green, pulp reddish, very sweet, dries well. Tree handsomest of Smyrna vari- 
eties." — Rocding. 

Ladaro. — Very large, oblong, pale yellow, brown cheek, flesh deep, red, rich 
and sugary. 

Magdalen (Madeleine). — Below medium, round; ribs distmct, rough, dis- 
appearing around the eye ; stalk longer than the fig, eye open, large ; skin 
greenish yellow ; pulp amber white. A very delicious fig, superior to the Ischias 
and Celeste. Not synonymous with Angelique. 

Marseillaise, Long. — Large, longer than wide; skin thick, with brownish 
shade; pulp dull red. Requires moist soils. A fair fig, which dries well. Not 
related to either Black or White Marseillaise. 

Marseillaise, IVhite. — Medium ovate, pyriform; neck short; stalk medium; 
ribs numerous and distinct; apex flattened; eye large, open; skin downy, pale 
yellowish green, mottled with white; pulp amber, with a few large seeds. One 
of the best figs for drying. Requires sandy, rich soil. 

Mission, Black. — Medium to large, turbinate; neck long; stalk short; ribs 
distinct; eye prominent, open; skin rough, deep mahogany violet, with red 
flush; pulp not fine, red but not bright or brownish amber; sweet, but not high- 
flavored; common in the Southern States, California and Mexico. The oldest 
fig in this country. 



PIGS GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 



393 



Monaco Bianco; syn. White Monaco. — Large, rounded, turbinate; flattened, 
neck small but very distinct; ribs numerous; eye very open; skin dark bluish 
green, with thin _ bloom; pulp dark-red rose. A most excellent fig for table, 
one of the best in California. 

Mouissouna. — Globular, turbinate, flattened, dark violet, blue bloom, pulp 
red, soft and sweet. 

Pacific White. — An unknown variety found growing on a farm in Placer 
County. Medium, size, fine grained, very sweet, dries well, but the skin is 
thicker and more tough than the imported fig. That and its small size are 
the only objections to it. It is quite widely distributed in southern California. 

Pastiliere. — Large, 3 inches by 1I/2; elongated, pyriform, with long neck; 
stalk short; eye closed, surrounded by an elevated iris; skin rough, hairy, with 
blue bloom; pulp red. Fine for preserves. 

Ronde Noire. — Large, round, but irregular; neck distinct, short; eye small; 
skin smooth, waxy, dark violet brown; pulp amber. Greatly to be recommended 
as a table fig. Is not related to Black Ischia or Osborn Prolific. 

Ronde Violette Native. — Large, globular, with no neck; glossy green, shaded 
violet brown; eye large; flesh amber, surrounding rose center. 

Rose Blanche. — Large, roundish, flattened; long stalk; brown or white 
ground; flesh bright red. Suitable for table and drying. 

Royal Vineyard. — Medium, pyriform, long, slender neck; reddish brown, blue 
bloom; eye large, open; flesh bright red. 

San Pedro, White; syn. Brebas. — Very large, round, flattened at apex; stalk 
and neck short; eye open; skin thick, tender, of a bright yellow color or 
greenish in the shade, without bloom; pulp amber. A remarkable and hand- 
some fig. Only the first crop matures without caprification. Suited only for 
table use. Requires moist, rich soil. 

San Pedro, Black. — Very large, elongated ovate, with no stalk, but with 
well-set neck; skin smooth, violet black with green neck; pulp red, coppery, 
tinted violet. For table use. The largest fig known. 

Smyrna (Fig of Commerce, Drying fig of Smyrna, Calimyrna). — Of sev- 
eral attempts to secure the true Smyrna fig, or the variety which produces 
the well-known Smyrna fig of commerce, that made by the San Francisco 
Bulletin, and managed by G. P. Rixford, has achieved most prominence, and 
is now generally conceded to have proved successful. Fourteen thousand cut- 
tings were obtained through United States Consul E. J. Smithers, in 1882, and 
a large part of these were distributed throughout the State. A later direct 
importation of fig cuttings from Smyrna was made by the Fancher Creek Nur- 
sery, of Fresno. These trees have already borne fruit, as has been described 
in a preceding paragraph on caprification. In the summer of 1890 cuttings 
imported from Smyrna by the United States Department of Agriculture were 
sent to several parties in this State. As the fig insect has fully established 
itself, as described on a previous page, this variety will establish itself as the 
leading drying fig here as a Smyrna, and a very important industry will be 
established upon it. Other figs previously called Smyrna in this State are 
misnamed. 

The Rixford Fig. — There are, however, new varieties of direct Smyrna 
parentage attracting attention in this State. The planting of Smyrna fig seed 
by Mr. E. W. Maslin, at Loomis, in 1886, has yielded several varieties which 
Mr. W. T. Swingle described in the Pacific Rural Press of February 27, 1909, 
as of decided promise, and at least two of them represent a new type of drying 
figs, decidedly different from any of the varieties of the Smyrna fig as yet im- 
ported from the Old World. These new varieties, which might be called 
self-sealed figs, show a drop of pellucid gum completely filling the very narrovv^ 



394 



"CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Rixford Fig Showing the Gum Drop. 




Original Rixford Fig Tree at Loomis. 



THE GUM DROP FIG 395 

mouth of the fruit when it matures. As the figs dry and shrivel on the tree 
and fall to the ground, the drop of gum hardens and hermetically seals the 
mouth, efifectually preventing the entrance of filth beetles, pomace flies and 
other insects. Such figs do not sour, since the germs causing fermentation 
are unable to effect an entrance to the pulp within. One of the self-sealing 
varieties was discovered late in October, 1908, by Mr. A. H. Brydges of 
Loomis, through the circumstance that the fruit had withstood uninjured two 
soaking rains that had ruined the figs on the adjoining trees, which, being 
seedlings, were all dififerent varieties, and not self-sealed. The best studied 
of the self-sealed figs Mr. Swingle has named "Rixford," in honor of Mr. 
G. P. Rixford, whose early service in the introduction of the Smyrna fig has 
been mentioned above. The figs are of medium size (about 1^4 to 2 by i^ to 
2 inches) with a short stalk. The skin is pale in color, very thin and tender, 
often translucent and amber colored in the figs that have cured on the ground. 
The pulp is light amber colored, full of fertile seeds, sweet and of excellent 
flavor. The drop of hardened gum that closes the mouth is usually from one- 
sixteenth to one-eighth inch in diameter, sometimes concealed just within the 
mouth, but usually partly protruding outside. The Rixford tree is of free 
growth, having a spread of perhaps 50 feet, though grown from seed planted 
in 1886 and set out in 1887. 

Verdal, Round. — Below medium, round pyriform without stalk or neck; 
skin smooth, waxy, bluish green; eye closed; pulp dark, blood red. A small 
fig, but valuable for canning and preserves ; better than the Ischias or Celeste. 
It does well in the Santa Clara Valley, but is inferior in the interior of the 
State. 

White Endich. — A re-named variety. Medium, golden yellow, pulp white 
tinged with pink; tree prolific and long ripening season. 

Verdal Longue. — Medium, oblong, turbinate; stalk and neck short; eye" 
closed; yellow, ribs brownish; flesh red; sweet aromatic. 

Ziinitsa. — Large, pyriform, greenish yellow amber flesh; good grower and 
bearer. 

There are many undetermined varieties of the fig grown here 
and there in the State. Some may be finally identified, others 
may be new. Some of them yield an excellent dried fruit and 
should be more carefully experimented with. During the last 
decade there has been a marked decline in interest in the fig 
because of the failure to secure the Smyrna type in the dried fruit 
and because so many varieties soured before drying. The out- 
look seems to rest upon successful caprification, although recently 
there has been increased success in profitable drying of other 
varieties. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE OLIVE AND ITS GROWTH IN CALIFORNIA 

The olive is another of the old mission fruits and though the 
tree and its products have been constantly under discussion since 
the American occupation, and though experimentation has been 
constant, it was not until 1885 that the tide of popular favor turned 
strongly toward the olive. For twelve years thereafter planting 
proceeded with enthusiasm amounting almost to infatuation, until 
the acreage in olives ten years ago reached such a figure that even 
the most enthusiastic ceased from further planting, because the 
future of the products of the olive was by no means clear. The 
competition of olive oil with cheaper salad oils worked greatly to 
the disadvantage of the higher-priced article, but as deception is 
now ruled out by recent pure-food legislation, cheaper oils can 
no longer be sold under the name of the olive, and legitimate pro- 
ducers will henceforth be protected. 

The difficulty of producing pickled ripe olives with good keep- 
ing qualities is also vastly greater than anticipated. In addition 
to these troubles the sterility of the trees in some situations, 
through frost or other agencies, discouraged many growers. It 
is probable that during the last decade the uprooting of trees far 
exceeded the planting and the olive acreage decreased consider- 
ably. At the same time there has been much progress attained 
in the building and equipment of oil mills and pickling estab- 
lishments, and in mastery of processes which yield acceptable 
products — all of which have favorably influenced the demand and 
price of the fresh fruit. The fact is, the olive was boomed in Cali- 
fornia along spectacular and speculative lines, and the industry 
must outlive the mistakes which were made. California will pro- 
duce profitably, good olives and olive products in suitable places 
and through the efiforts of masterful men and women who can rise 
to the requirements of production and of protection against imi- 
tation articles in the trade. 

The olive tree has survived a temperature of 14 degrees Fah- 
renheit in California, but the fruit is injured by a slight fall below 
the freezing point. This may render unprofitable the late varieties 
which carry their fruit-ripening into the winter months. 

The olive tree will thrive throughout the larger part of Cali- 
fornia, and it has .been shown that it will grow in a soil too dry 
even for the grape-vine, and too rocky for any other fruit tree, 

396 




397 



398 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



but the groA¥th of the tree and the bearing of fruit will be pro- 
portional to the amounts of plant food and moisture, and it is 
idle to expect fruit without irrigation if the soil can not hold 
water enough for the tree. On foot-hill slopes the trees bear fruit 
earlier than in the rich valleys, although in the latter the trees 
attain larger growth. Trees in the interior bear sooner than 
on the coast, and ripen their fruit earlier in the season. 

The olive tree is now thriving in California in a great variety 
of soils. It is productive, if frosts are not tiDO severe, on moist 
valley lands, while on hillsides, even where excavations had to 
be made between boulders, or into disintegrating rock, the tree has 
exhibited thrift and content with the situation. But the conclusion 
should not be drawn that the olive relishes poor soil. It may 
thrive with loose rocks or boulders, but it finds among them the 
elements it needs including an adequate supply of moisture. It 
is not to be inferred that the olive will succeed on sterile soil. 

Although the relations of soils to the qualities of oil have been 
investigated by the University of California Experiment Station 
and some interesting results published, we have not had experience 
enough in this State to demonstrate the influence of soils on the 
quality of the oil, but trade results have shown that good oil has 
been made from fruit grown on some of our best valley fruit soils, 
deep and naturally well drained, as w^ell as from fruit grown upon 
drier uplands, and the production on deeper, richer lands is much 
larger. 

PROrAGATlDX OF THE OLIVE 

Olives are propagated from seed, and from cuttings of various 
kinds and sizes. The growth from seed is seldom practised in 
this State, because growth from cuttings is easy, and furnishes 
the variety desired without grafting. 

Growing Olives from Seed. — The olives should not be planted 
with the pulp, but cleaned of this either by letting them rot in a 
pile or by putting them into an alkaline solution to cut the oil. 
A simple way to hasten germination is to break the pits, taking 
care not to hurt the germ. An instrument similar to the nut 
cracker has been invented in France which is said to work well. 
When the kernels are deprived of their shell, they are kept moist 
in a compost, or mixture of cow-dung and sandy soil, anel are 
sown thickly in the month of April. If it is thought to be too 
much work to take the kernels out of the pits, they must be soaked 
for twenty-four hours in a solution of one-half pound of concen- 
trated lye to the gallon of water. Most of the seeds sprout the 
first year. Planting the naked kernels gives the quickest result. 
Without using this artificial means the seeds may remain dormant 
at least for two years. 



GROWING OLIVES PROM CUTTINGS 



599 



Large Cuttings. — There are two chief methods of propagating 
the olive from cuttings now practiced in CaHfornia. One uses 
well-matured wood, and the other young wood which has just 
passed out of the herbaceous state. Practice with hard wood 
proceeds by taking cuttings of sound wood about a foot long and 
one-half to one inch in diameter, and rooting them as already 
described for vine cuttings, in Chapter XXVI. These large cut- 
tings sometimes remain dormant for a year or more, and recent 
propagation has been almost exclusively by the small-cutting 
method. 




Manner of Rooting of small olive cuttings. 



Small Cuttings. — Propagating by small cuttings has increased 
rapidly during the last few years. It serves an excellent purpose 
in rapid multiplication of the new varieties which are being secured 



400 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



from abroad ; it enables the groAver to handle a large number of 
plants in a small space, and the plants from small cuttings have 
a symmetrical root system quite resembling" that from a seed. 
These cuttings are made from very small shoots and both the 
tips and the lower cuts are used. In the engraving the figure on 
the lower left is a tip cutting; the next, a cutting lower down the 
shoot. These figures are about natural size, and show clearly 
how the cuttings are made. They are placed closely in boxes 




Propagating the Olive by small cuttings. 

of sand about four inches deep, and after a few months are potted 
in small pots, or may be reset farther apart in boxes of soil or 
in the open ground. In January or February, the wood seems 
to be in the best condition in Berkeley, but such condition may 
come at other times in other parts of the State. From such cut- 
tings the trees will be of good size for planting in permanent place 
the next year. It is very important to take the small cuttings 
just when the wood is in the right condition, not too soft nor 
too hard. How to determine this point can not be described ; it 
must be learned by experience. 

Growing Trees from Truncheons. — ^New varieties secured 
from the south of Europe generally come in the shape of trun- 
cheons, which are long sticks of hard wood. They may be planted 
entire, or be sawn and split into large cuttings (for olive cuttings, 
even in firewood shape, will grow if properly treated), though 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING OLIVES 



401 



better trees come from small cuttings. If the truncheons are 
bedded a few inches below the surface in moist, warm soil, shoots 
will appear which can be worked up into small cuttings when they 
reach the proper condition. 

BUDDING THE OLIVE 

Since the planting of a large area of Redding Picholines and 
the fruit found to be that of a wild or poor seedling olive and not 
a superior named variety, there has been a demand for working; 
over the trees into better varieties. More recently many of the 
imported varieties have proved disappointing and a change to a 




tv,# 



Olive: Twig-Bud as cut. 



variety profitable in the region is imperative. The method of 
budding commonly employed with fruit trees does not usually 
yield a high percentage of success with the olive, and other ways 
have been adopted with much better results. 

Budding may be performed at any time of the year when the 
sap flows freely. If done late in the summer, the buds lie dormant 
through the winter. Best results are obtained when the buds are 
inserted early in the spring, as the operation can be performed 
to a much better advantage, and the buds will grow to some height 
before winter. When inserted in large orchard trees, or in limbs 
of large trees, the shoots from the inserted buds are allowed to 
grow until they have attained such a size as will justify in the 
removal of the entire top. 

Twig Budding. — Twig budding is very successful. The bud 
is cut deep into the wood, in order to give the bud as much bark 
as possible. The leaves are partly cut ofif ; then, with the sharp 
point of the budding knife, the greater part of the wood inside 
of the bud is removed, as shown in the picture. If part of the wood 



402 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



IS not removed, then the bud can not take, as the wood in it pre- 
vents the two barks (the inner bark of the bud and the inner 
bark of the stock) from uniting. When the wood has been partly 
removed from the bud, the bud is inserted into the stock, as bud- 
ding is done in the regular, ordinary way, and tied tight. A small 
tip-twig may be used or a longer twig, cut back to the lowest 
bud and part of the foliage cut away, as shown in the engraving. 
At the end of three or four weeks the string is removed, and part 




Olive: Twig-Bud inserted. 

of the top of the stock is cut back to force the bud to start. As 
the bud grows, the foliage of the stock is gradually removed, 
until the bud is able to take up the entire flow of sap ; it is then 
left to grow, and it may be protected by tying to a long stub of 
the branch which may be left for that purpose above the point 
of insertion. When the bud has grown out strongly, what remains 
of the stock above the bud is cut smooth, close to the bud, to allow 
it to heal over. 

GRAFTING THE OLIVE 

Grafting is also used in working over both large and small 
olive trees. Good success can sometimes be had with the ordinary 
method of top grafting, as described in Chapter IX, using scions 
not larger than a lead pencil and inserting them in April. The 
olive can also be successfully grafted in the bark according to 
the method shown in Chapter IX. This graft is used for work- 
ing in the top of the tree, but it may also be used at the surface 
of the ground, covering the cut surfaces with earth when the 
scions are in place. The shield grafting to which allusion is made 
has already been described in the preceding chapter, as it works 
well with the fig. Judge A. L. Rhodes, of San Jose, gives the 
following explicit account of his success with this graft : 




s ..; /^— ;V ■ V 7^"^^:^S)«^^;^ 






Distress of the unpruned Olive tree on moist land in California. 

403 



404 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The stock, where cut off, may be from half to two and one-half inches in 
diameter; the scion about one-quarter inch in diameter, the lower end to be 
formed by an oblique cut of about one and one-half inches. Split the bark of 
the top of the stock about one inch, raise the bark at the sides of the split 
slightly, insert the point of the scion between the bark and wood of the stock, 
at the split, and press it down the length of its oblique cut. Fasten it by bind- 
ing twine around both stock and scion, about ten times, very firmly. Apply 
grafting wax to top of stock and scion. 

If the bark of the stock be three or more years old, make two slits 
in it, about one and one-half inches in length, the width between them equaling 
the width of the oblique cut of the scion, raise the bark between the slits, cut 
off about half of it by a sloping cut, then insert the scion and press it down, 
and bind with twine and apply grafting wax, as above directed. Cotton wrap- 
ping twine is of sufficient strength. 

Stocks the diameter of one inch or more should receive two or more scions. 
Scions gathered a short time before their insertion are the most successful. 
The twine around the stock and scion should not be loosened until it indents 
the bark of the stock. Protect the graft from sun and wind. Wrap paper 
around stock and scion, the paper to extend a, few inches above the scion — 
or place the paper, in the form of a bag, over scion and stock — and secure the 
paper with twine, tied around the stock in a slip-knot. 

Bark grafting may be performed at any time when the bark of the stock 
can be readily raised — whenever the bark will "slip." I grafted in that mode in 
each week of April and May and the first of June, and in September. Failures 
not 5 per cent. Twelve scions inserted about the middle of last September 
are all growing. Shield grafting is the most successful in the spring: I prefer 
the bark grafting, as the shield buds may not start for months, or even for 
a year. 

Side Graft on Small Wood. — A satisfactory graft can be 
made with an ol)lique cnt. as shown in Chapter IX, which is 
superior to a split of the stock, because on a small stock the split 
is apt to continue farther than (lcsira1:)le when the scion is pushed 
in. \\'ith the slanting" cut in the stock the scion can be firmly 
pushed into place without splitting. The union of inner barks 
of scion and stock must be made on one side when the stock is 
larger than the scion. This graft is tied in and waxed, or a waxed 
band may l)e used. In working small wood at the ground surface, 
the earth should be drawn up around the graft. 

PLANTING THE OLIVE 

There is nothing gained by planting out the olive too early 
in the spring. Roth cuttings and rooted plants will do better 
if planted af^er the soil becomes well w'armed, and after the heavy 
rains of the winter are well over. Of course the time when this 
condition comes is different from year to year, and varies, also, 
according to locality and situation. During the first summer the 
young plants will need occasional watering in some situations ; 
in others, merely mulching, or keeping the surface finely stirred, 
will suffice. 

Olive trees are planted at different distances, but the ruling 
intervals are tw^enty to twenty-five feet. This will allow the trees 
to bear a number of years before they crowd each other; and then 
removing alternate trees gives ample distance for future growth. 



PRUNING THE OLIVE 



405 



But it clearly the part of wisdom to hold the olive to a low growth 
in order that the fruit may be cheaply gathered, and this may be 
done by proper pruning. 

PRUNING THE OLIVE 

Pruning policies as insisted upon in Chapter XII, have direct 
bearing upon the commercial growth of the olive. The develop- 
ment of the tree according to principles there laid down is prac- 




Bearing Olive tree before pruning. 



ticable and desirable. After proper low form is secured, satis- 
factory bearing will depend upon regular pruning to secure new 
bearing shoots and thinning to prevent the tree from becoming 
too dense and bushy. The olive bears upon wood which grew the 
preceding year, and upon no other. It is just as important, then, 
to secure a good supply of such shoots as it is to secure new bear- 
ing wood for the peach, and the ways to do it, by cutting back 
and thinning out, are much the same. Keep the tree from running 
out of reach of a step-ladder ; prevent it from becoming a brush- 
heap, for both these acts are essential to the growth of good 



406 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



bearing wood, low down. At the same time it must be remem- 
bered that too severe cutting-back forces the growth of branches 
which form only wood buds and fruiting is postponed. The secret 
is to prune enough to induce plenty of new growth but not so 
much excessive, non-bearing, new growth results. This result 
is secured by regular and moderate pruning. 




Bearing Olive tree after pruning. The amount cf thinning 
can be estimated by the litter on the ground. 



Trees which have been allowed to form umbrella-like tops may 
be brought down to business again by cutting back the main limbs 
and making selection from the many new shoots which appear, 
but by proper, regular pruning a tree can be so trained that the 
removal of large limbs is seldom necessary. The times to prune 
the olive are just after the gathering of the fruit or just before 
new growth starts in the Spring. 

Developing the Vase Form. — Explicit suggestions as to the 
development of a low, vase-form tree may be helpful to inexperi- 
enced growers. The following is from a foreign writer, whose 
illustrations are presented herewith : 



DEVELOPING THE VASE FORM 



407 




Fig. 1. 



Fig. 4. 




Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



408 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



When the young tree has attained some height, it is the practice to cut off 
the top, so that the main stem shall be about four and a half feet in rich 
soil, or three feet in poor soil or in locations exposed to strong winds. Six 
or eight branches are left to form the head. The process of shaping the 
tree then proceeds, as shown in the engravings. Fig. i shows the young 
tree to be cut off at the point marked by the dotted line C Six branches, 
three on each side, are left, and the lower twigs shortened. Each of the 
branches left develops, during the year, as the one shown in Fig. 2, which is 
then cut at C again, and the shoots B and D are shortened. This process starts 
out the upf)er shoot, and it appears the following year as A in Fig. 3, and it is 
again cut at C. This causes the two upper shoots to develop, and at the end 
of the year they appear as shown at BB in Fig. 4. Thus they stand at the 
fourth year's pruning, and each of them is cut at C, and A is shortened and D 
allowed to develop. By this time the tree has a spherical or vase form, and 
exposes much surface to the sun, which is desirable. 

The young branches that spring in the form of a cross on the more vigorous 
branches, bear only wood buds; the others, which are weaker, bear fruit buds 
on their whole length and burst into blossom at the spring of the second year. 
The latter never blossom again in the same place, but the shoot extends itself 
and forces two lateral ones. These new shoots bear the following spring, and 
so on. It must therefore be always borne in mind that the olive bears only on 
the two-year-old wood. If the new shoots are formed every year, the olive 
will bear annually; but in years of good crops, the sap employed to nourish 
the fruit only produces a number of very diminutive shoots, and the next crop 
is a short one. The pruning ought to favor the growth of young lateral shoots, 
either by shortening the terminal ones, suppressing the "gormand," or fruitless 
shoots, or by reducing in a certain proportion, each year, the fruit-bearing 
shoots, if we wish for a crop every year. The shortening of a branch is made 
immediately above an outside bud in an oblique direction, the interior one 
being suppressed. The suckers at the root of the tree should be continually 
cut off. 

Concerning the time for pruning, the best season is said to be when the 
winter frosts are well over and just before the sap starts in the spring. By 
early pruning the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably situated on the 
tree, brings them out, and also develops latent buds on the old wood. Thus 
one is enabled to prevent the tree from becoming covered with naked limbs. 



THE FRUIT AND ITS PRODUCTS 

The agricultural experiment station of the University of Cali- 
fornia was occupied for many years in the growth of olives and 
close examination of olive products both by laboratory and prac- 
tical" test. The publications of the station discuss the operations 
of oil making and pickling and the suitability of varieties and for 
the purpose of this treatise outlines will be drawn from these 
sources. 

Gathering the Fruit. — Olives should be picked carefully and 
at the right time. For green pickles they should be picked very 
soon after they obtain full size, but before they have begun 
to color or soften. For ripe pickles and for oil making 
the fruit shoukl be gathered when it contains the maxi- 
mum amount of oil. This is soon after the olives are well 
colored, but before they have attained the deep black which sig- 
nifies overripeness. If the olives are gathered too green the oil 
will be bitter; if too ripe, it will be rancid. When they can be 



MANUFACTURE OP OLIVli) OIL 



409 



easily shaken from the tree they are ripe enough. If they com- 
mence to fall without vigorous shaking they are overripe. For 
whatever purposes the olives are to be used they should be care- 
fully gathered by hand, and imperfect, immature, or bruised fruit 
rejected. Sound fruit is required for high-grade oil or for hand- 
some pickles with good keeping quality. 

THE MANUFACTURE OF OLIVE OIL 

Olive oil is made in this State with apparatus of both Cali- 
fornian and European design, and, as a rule, there is made only 
one, and at most but two, pressings of the pomace, which s then used 
for fattening swine. In the frequent working over of the pomace, 
and the close extraction of the oil, as practiced in Europe, we 
have done little as yet. 

Olive oil is made on a small scale by a number of parties who 
use home-made contrivances, or small, portable cider machinery 
for the crushing and pressing. During the last few years quite a 
number of mills have been erected at several points in California 
and they have made a market for the olives produced by growers 
who do not care to undertake manufacture. A detailed account 
of oil making, including descriptions of buildings and machinery, 
has been published by the University Experiment Station.* As 
this is available to those who desire such specific information, 
only an outline will be undertaken for the information of the gen- 
eral reader. 

Drying. — Extraction of oil from fresh olives gives the best 
oil, but it is somewhat troublesome, and it is customary to partially 
dry them. This partial drying is also useful to keep the fruit for 
some time or for shipment before crushing. Place the olives in 
layers not more than three inches deep, on trays that are stacked 
in a dry, well-aired room, protected from the wind and the direct 
rays of the sun. Turn daily until the fruit becomes well \yrinkled. 
This requires about eight or ten days, according to the degree of 
temperature. The partially dried fruit may be stored in a dark 
room where the temperature does not rise above sixty degrees 
Fahrenheit, for three or four weeks without any serious deteri- 
oration of oil. To hasten the drying process, artificial driers, con- 
structed on the same principle as the fruit or hop driers, are 
sometimes used. The olives are placed in a single layer upon 
trays, and the drier is kept at a temperature of about one hundred 
and twenty degrees Fahrenheit ; at over one hundred and thirty 
degrees Fahrenheit the quality of the oil may be impaired. The 
drying takes about forty-eight hours — more or less — according to 
the nature of the fruit. 



* "California Olive Oil: its Manufacture," by G. W. Shaw, Bulletin 159, Uni- 
versity Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal, 



410 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Crushing. — The oHves are usually crushed by heavy stone roll- 
ers revolving in a circular depression in a bed of masonry into 
which the fruit is placed. Crushers with corrugated bronze or 
bronzed metal rollers are now made that perform their work in a 
very satisfactory manner, breaking up the flesh and pits very 
thoroughly. As they are all of metal they absorb no oil and are 
easily cleaned. It is very essential that the flesh should be crushed 
thoroughly in order to break up the cells and permit the oil to be 
pressed out. 

Pressing. — When the revolving crusher has reduced the olives 
to a mass, the pomace is shoveled up from the bed of the mill 
and prepared for pressing. Instead of the fabric of woven esparto 
grass which is used abroad, coarse linen cloth is used. A certain 
amount of the pulp is put in each cloth, so that when the cloth is 
folded back it makes a cheese about three feet square and three 
inches thick. Ten or more of these cheeses are placed one above 
the other, with slats between, and the pressure applied gently at 
first. From the liquid which runs out first is made the very finest 
oil, known as "virgin oil." The pressure is then increased very 
gradually until the full power of the machine is reached. This 
presses out the second quality of oil, which is generally mixed 
with the first. After obtaining all the oil possible by the first 
pressure the "cheese" is taken out, thoroughly broken up in hot 
water, and again pressed. This yields the third quality, which 
is very much inferior to the first and second. Sometimes the 
"cheese" from the first pressing is thoroughly broken up with 
cold water and pressed again before being treated with hot water. 
In this way a little oil is obtained that differs little from the sec- 
ond quality, and may be mixed with it. After this a certain amount 
of oil still remains in the "cheese," but it can be extracted only^ 
by very powerful hydraulic presses, or by chemical means, and 
then is of very inferior quality, and suitable only for burning 
or for soap making. 

Settling and Clarifying. — The liquid from the press is dark 
colored, and it is conducted into a receptacle for settling. Much 
of the foreign matter quickly separates, the oil appearing on the 
top. The oil is removed to other receptacles in which it can stand', 
from two to five months for perfect separation of undesirable 
sediment. These settling tanks may be of well-tinned metal, or 
of cement lined with glass or other impervious substance. The 
first settling is conveniently made by means of a funnel-shaped 
apparatus, which by its conical shape facilitates the rapid deposi- 
tion of sediment. After standing for twenty-four hours in this 
apparatus the major part of the sediment is deposited and can 
be drawn off at the bottom. It is well, before running the oil 
into the settling tanks, to pass it through two or three inches of 



PICKLING AND CANNING OLIVES 



411 



cotton wool. This is accomplished by means of a funnel with a 
perforated, horizontal cross partition, upon which the cotton is 
placed. It takes, generally, about one month for the oil to settle 
sufficiently in the first tank, after which it should be drawn ofif 
carefully into the second, and so on until it is sufficiently bright. 
Three rackings are usually sufficient. 

Olives are sometimes ground and pressed in portable cider mills 
or ground in barley crushers for oil manufacture on a small scale. 
As the above description shows, oil making is a simple process, 
and may be carried on at home with rude devices. It is, however, 
a process requiring care and cleanliness, and intelligent personal 
attention. 

PICKLING THE OLIVE 

Olives are pickled in a green state, as is the case with the 
imported olives; or in a ripe state, as largely undertaken in Cal- 
ifornia. No one had any conception at first of the difficulties 
attending the production of pickled ripe olives which would have the 
keeping quality demanded in an article of commerce. It is now 
clearly seen that treating olives to extract the bitterness and to 
secure firmness, good flavor and keeping quality is one of the most 
difficult propositions in our horticultural manufacturing, and we 
can but admire the wisdom of the Spaniard in teaching Anglo- 
Saxons to enjoy green olives. To succeed with the ripe olive 
requires the utmost patience, experience, and intelligence, and 
one who undertakes it must not get weary of the most exhaustive 
study of difficulties that may arise and how to meet them. When 
the most careful picklers with the best appliances sometimes lose 
hundreds of dollars worth in spite of all they know about it, the 
difficulty of the matter may be' appreciated. 

The following is an outline of the pickling of ripe olives as 
drawn from the L^niversity publications : 

The Lye Process. — The vats or other receptacles used for pickling should 
be perfectly clean, odorless, and tastless. Earthenware is the best material, 
but it is cheaper to use wooden receptacles thoroughly treated with boiling 
water and soda until they are sterilized and all taste of the wood removed. 
Metal receptacles must not be used. The vats should have a plug below to 
draw off the liquids and should be covered to exclude air. They should be 
shallow, so that the layer of olives should not be much over a foot in thickness. 

1. Place the olives in a solution, composed of two ounces of potash lye 
to each gallon of very pure water, for four hours. Repeat this once, or twice 
if necessary, to sufficiently remove the bitterness. If the olives are soft at first, 
or if they are of a kind that softens rapidly in the lye, use brine from the 
beginning, adding two ounces of lye and four ounces of salt to each gallon 
of water. As the lye acts much more slowly when used in combination with 
salt, it may be allowed to stay on the olives for a longer time without injury, 
eight to twelve hours or even more. 

2. Rinse the olives, thoroughly and replace the lye solution with fresh 
water. Change the water twice a day, until the lye has been removed from 
the olive, as judged by the taste. Use weak brine if the olives are too soft, 
changing once in two days. 



412 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



3. Replace the water with brine composed of four ounces of salt to a gallon 
of water and allow to stand two days. 

4. Put in brine of six ounces of salt to a gallon for seven days. 

5. Put in brine of ten ounces per gallon for two weeks. 

6. Put finally into a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to the gallon 
of water. 

Much depends upon having pure water. Ditch or stream water should be 
boiled before using. 

Pure-Water Process. — The best pickled olives are made v/ithout the use 
of lye, but this process is only practicable with olives whose bitterness is easily 
extracted, and where the water is extremely pure and plentiful, and even then 
it is very slow and tedious. It differs from the last process only in omitting 
the preliminary lye treatment. The olives are placed from the beginning in 
pure water, which is changed twice a day until the bitterness is sufficiently 
extracted. This requires from forty to sixty days or more. The extraction 
is sometimes hastened by making two or three shallow, longitudinal slits in each 
olive, but this modification, besides requiring a large amount of expensive hand- 
ling, renders the fruit peculiarly susceptible to bacterial decay and softening. 
Altogether, the pure-water process can not be recommended for California, 
as it is too expensive and rmcertain. 

Green Pickles. — Green pickled olives are made by essentially the same 
processes as are used for ripe olives. The extraction of the bitterness requires 
the same care. The olives are pickled soon after they have attained full size, 
and before they have shown any signs of coloring or softening. They contain 
at this time comparatively little oil, and are in every way much inferior to the 
ripe pickles in nutritive value. They are not a food but a relish. They are 
rather more easily made than the ripe pickles, as there is less danger of spoiling. 

CANNING THE RIPE OLIVE 

The use of heat and hermetical sealing is a recourse to avoid 
the difficulties of ripe pickling" and canned olives, put upon the 
market in the same form as other canned fruits, have recently 
become popular. There are special canneries for their prepara- 
tion at several points in the state and the general canneries are 
also handling olives in considerable quantities. The process is 
in the main like that of canning other fruits but special points 
have to be learned through experience. The University investi- 
gation of the effect of heat on the olive* shows that ripe pickled 
olives, heated to 175 degrees F., kept perfectly for thirty-two 
months. By heating them still higher in sealed cans or bottles 
they can be kept indefinitely with as great facility as any other 
food product. The heating does not injtire the flavor and the 
texture, but, on the contrary, improves them. Olives, preserved 
by heating do not require such strong brine, and it is only neces- 
sary to add as much salt as the palate requires. The heating causes 
some of the coloring matter to diffuse into the brine, so that the 
olives are made a little lighter colored. With time, however, 
the colored matter diffuses out in the same way from unheated 
olives, so that at the end of a year the heated olives are actually 
darker in color than the unheated. 



* "Olive Pickling, .etc.," by F. T. Bioletti. Circular 24, University Experiment 
Station, Berkeley, Cal. 



VARIETIES OF THE OLIVP: ^^^Q 

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 

Many varieties of the olive have been brought to California 
from southern Europe during the last thirty years. Fifty-seven 
varieties have been analyzed and elaborately reported upon by 
the University experts, and of these about fifteen varieties rose to 
commercial account but several have been dropped, as shown 
by the statements of their operations which leading propagators 
have kindly furnished for this work. It is an interesting" fact, 
however, that in spite of all the efforts put forth to secure a better 
olive than the old Mission variety, this old sort comprises three- 
fifths of all the planting which has been done during the last 
few years — that is, the Mission has received fifty per cent more 
orders from planters than all other sorts combined. Several 
varieties at first popular have been abandoned because of an inte- 
rior decay of the pulp. The following is the list of the varieties 
now favored in California on a commercial scale, arranged approx- 
imately in the order of their present popularit}^ : 

Mission, Manzanillo, Oblonga, 

Ascolano, Columbella, Uvaria, 

Sevillano, or Columella, Pendulina, 

Nevadillo, Oblitza, Lucques, 

Rubra, Picholine d'Aix. 

These may be taken, then, as the varieties to which attention 
should be given. C)f course the next few years' experience may 
produce marked changes in this list. 

The Mission Oliz'c. — By this name is signified the variety found growing 
at the old missions in California. Samples of the fruit and leaves sent by F. 
Pohndorff to Don Jose de Hidalgo Toblada, a noted Spanish authority on the 
olive, led to the classing of our mission varieties with the Cornicabra- Corni- 
zuelo varieties of Spain, and its value was confirmed. It has long been known 
that the so-called Mission olive embraced several varieties, or sub-varieties 
at least. 

Common or Broad-Leaved Mission Olive. — The variety of olive most gen- 
erally known as the Mission; ovate, oblique — sometimes very much so — the pit 
straight or slightly curved, fruit ver}^ variable in size, growing singly or in 
clusters of two or three, or even five ; time of ripening, late, in the coast region 
sometimes not before February, but generally in December; in warm localities, 
in November. 

Redding Picholine. — Imported by the late B. B. Redding. A perfect oval 
in shape, ripens early, several weeks earlier than the common Mission ; dark 
purple or black when ripe; in pickling the pulp loses the bitterness quickly, the 
fruit being very pleasant. This variety was propagated extensively in the 
State, and, until fruiting, was supposed to be a large pickling variety, but ir 
proved to be a small seedling — a shoot coming from the root below the graft. 
It has produced oil of good quality. The smallness of the fruit is its irreme- 
diable defect. 

Picholine d'Aix. — Fruit medium, elongated, tapering toward apex which 
is pointed; reddish black when ripe. 

Picholine de St. Chamas. — Oblong, reddish black; highly esteemed in France 
for quality when pickled. 



414 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Polymorpha. 



Nevadillo. 



Oblonga. — Imported by John Rock from France. An olive of a peculiar, 
club-like shape, being narrow at the stem end, broad at the point, rounded and 
strongly oblique; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp loses its bitter- 
ness comparatively quickly in pickling. This olive ripens quite early — at least 
two or three weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission; color, dark purple. 

rendoulicr. — Large, oval, slightly curved at apex end; desirable for pick- 
ling; early ripening in October in the interior valley and in November in coast 
valleys. 



VARIETIES OP THE OLIVE 



415 




Sevillano. 



Mission. 



Manzaiiillo No. i. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain, large regular 
rounded oval; pit straight, strongly pointed at the apex, nine-sixteenths of an 
inch long, fitve-sixteenths of an inch thick. Ripens early, several weeks earlier 
than the Broad-leaved Mission. The fruit grows on long stems. The pulp 
parts readily with its bitterness, and is exceedingly rich when pickled. Excel- 
lent in the San Joaquin Valley both for oil and pickles. 

Mansanillo No. 2. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. As the name 
("small apple") indicates, this variety is nearly round, with a pit of rounded 
oval shape, rather squarely cut off at the base. This variety ripens early — 
several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission olive; the fruit grows 
generally singly on long stems. 



416 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Gordal. — A popular pickling olive in Spain, medium size, early. 

Rubra. — Imported by John Rock from France ; ovate, slightly oblique, looks 
a good deal like a small Mission olive; pit straight, pointed; ripens three to 
four weeks earlier than the common Mission variety; is of a jet black when 
ripe. This tree begins to fruit quite young, and is a prolific bearer. Very hardy 
and prolific even in dry situations. 

Atroviolacea. — Medium size, black, chiefly valuable for oil. 

Uvaria. — Imported by John Rock from France. Oval, regular, and rounded 
on both ends ; pit straight, heavy, late ; later than the common Mission olive ; 
color dark purple or black when ripe. The name, "grape-like," is well chosen, 
the fruit growing in clusters, as many as seven together, and in shape them- 
selves resembling the grape. Very prolific. 




Mission Olive of California (single Olive natural size). 



Pendulina. — Imported by John Rock from France. An even, oval shape, 
rounded at both ends, quite variable in size, many fruits remaining small and 
undeveloped; pit has small, sharp points often at both ends. Fruit grows in- 
clusters of from two to five; the pulp parts very readily with its bitterness. 
Larger and more ovate than Pendoulier. Tree a strong grower; fruit desirable 
both for oil and pickles. 

Coluinbella. — Imported by John Rock from France. General form, broadly 
oval; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow color which all 
the fruit assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming dark purple; pit 
small, _ straight and sharp pointed; the pulp contains little bitterness; flavor 
very rich; ripens late, later than the Broad-leaved Mission. Tree hardy in dry 
places and a prolific bearer. Also called "Columella." 

Polymorpha. — Imported by John Rock from France. Very large, ovate, 
oblique, and pointed; light colored; pit square at the base, strongly pointed at 



VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE 



417 




The Picholine, reduced. 



the apex; flesh firm; ripens very early; frnit grows on strong stems in clusters 
of two or three. Tree not a strong grower, but productive. 

Lucques. — A variety specially adapted for pickling, though producing oil of 
good quality; strong-growing tree and hardy; sometimes shy bearer when 
young; fruit shiny black, curved; product called "Crescent Olive," 



418 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Nevadillp 5/flnco.— Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. Oval, slightly 
oblique, pointed, resembling somewhat a Mission, but is generally more elon- 
gated in proportion to its diameter than the latter; pit small, curved, and gen- 
erally pointed at both ends; the fruit is borne in clusters of three to five; 
ripening not rnuch earlier than the Mission; a fine oil olive, largely planted, but 
disappointing in some regions as a shy bearer and subject to frost injury. 




Ascolano Olive. 




Manzanillo Olive. 




Sevillano, or Queen Olive. 



Oblitsa. — Imported by the late G. N. Milco from Dalmatia; resembles the 
Pendulier, and may be identical ; fine in the San Joaquin Valley ; very large 
oval, but broad and rounded at both ends; grows in clusters; tree a good 
grower, hardy and productive; fruit excellent for pickles; ripens in November 
in the interior — about the same as the Mission. 



VARIETIES OP THE OLIVE 



419 



Scvillano. — Recently largely planted as the variety exported from Spain 
as the "Queen olive."" The largest of all olives; only useful for picklnig ; when 
ripe, bluish black; clingstone. Tree a strong grower, leaves deep green, green- 
ish white underneath. Described by Mr. Roeding as a regular bearer, but 
requires deep, rich, well-drained soil and will not stand much cold. 

Ascolano. — "White olive of Ascoli." Very large, "large as a French prune 
and much like one in shape" (Bioletti). Excellent for pickles, but not desirable 
in color of either green or ripe pickles. 

The foregoing- enumeration and description of varieties is only 
partial and mainly restricted to varieties which have been more 
or less largely planted. Many more have been experimentally 
fruited, but the tendency is to concentrate on very few which have 
made good in California and there is far less interest in varieties 
than a quarter of a century ago. The following are the leading 
facts as to size, pit, and oil contents of the varieties which have 
been most largely planted and a few others : 

Averages of Olive varieties, determined at the University of California 



VARIETY. 

Mission 

Nevadillo Blanco 

Manzanillo 

Redding Picholine 

Uvaria 

Rubra 

Oblonga 

Columbella 

Pendulina 

Polyniorplia 

Macrocarpa 

Regalis 

Correoiolo 

Razzo • 

Frantoio 

Cucco 

Leccino 

Grossaio . ....... 

Palazzuolo 

Infrantoio 

Lucques 

Picholine 

Ascolano 

Oblitza 

Empeltre 

Sevillano 



Number of 


Oil 


, per cent. 


Olives 


Pit, per cent. 


in 


per pound. 


w 


■hole fruit. 


111.6 


17.2 


17.56 


157.3 


17.3 


19.21 


106.6 


14.7 


16.94 


398.2 


23.0 


16.18 


205.1 


25.5 


13.71 


196.1 


17.9 


18.58 


179.4 


18.7 


13.34 


114.6 


16.6 


15.59 


157.1 


13.7 


18.63 


71.9 


17.1 


15.85 


72.8 


17.5 


14.70 


112.5 


16.3 


16.37 


262.7 


2 .8 


21.15 


216.5 


24.3 


21.10 


298.^ 


25.9 


24.10 


1S2.9 


21.1 


27.22 


245.5 


21.7 


22.45 


242.3 


25.7 


23.96 


272.1 


22.2 


29.34 


375.0 


30.0 


19.3 


192.9 


23.0 


14.81 


77.0 


17.5 


17.83 


60.6 


12.0 


16.26 


105.2 


14.6 


11.23 


111.4 


15.7 


19.86 


36.2. 


14.5 


17.23 



It should be remembered that olives vary in size according 
to growing conditions which environ the tree, just as other fruits 
do. F'or this reason the foregoing table may not do full justice 
to some varieties, but relatively it should be accurate enough for 
most comparative uses. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

THE ORANGE 

The orange leads all the fruits of California. Near the close 
of Chapter VI will be found the numbers of trees and value 
of product shipped out of the State, upon the latter of which the 
supremacy of the orange rests. In view of this leadership it 
seems fitting to take a little wider range in the discussion of the 
significance of the orange in the development of California than 
has been indulged in the consideration of other fruits, and this 
is justified by the fact that the orange is the exponent of the horti- 
cultural resources of the State and its attributes in this direction 
are shared in varying degrees by the other fruits. The great- 
ness of orange grov/ing in California becomes, then, in various 
ways the token of our advancement in one of the highest of the 
agricultural arts, and in the mastery of long-distance commercial 
distribution of fresh fruits. These achievements are also a demon- 
stration of the quality of our agricultural citizenship.* 

THE ORANGE INDUSTRY OF THE WORLD 

From the beginning the orange has reigned as king in the inter- 
national fruit trade of the world. The grape has always been and 
is still, greater in the value of its contribution to commerce and 
in the distance it safely traverses, but the grape rules not as fruit, 
but through its manufactured products, while the orange carries 
its natural beauty, fragrance and flavor unchanged around the 
world. From the earliest times the orange has not only been 
accepted in northern climes as a symbol of tropical and sub-tropical 
salubrity and sumptuousness, but by its own distinctive charac- 
teristics as a fruit it has won recognition as befitting the highest 
uses of mankind. \jy its nature too the orange ministers to its 
own commercial popularity. It endures long shipment; it ripens 
slowly and through a season of several months which constitute 
the winter in northern latitudes when local fruits are scant or 
absent and the refreshment in the citric juices most welcome. 
The production of such a commercial commodity has from the 
earliest times constituted an important industry. 



* The Orange Industry "Encyclopedia Americana," Scientific American, New 
Yorl<, 1904. "The Orange in Northern and Central California," California State 
Board of Trade, San' Francisco, U^OS, etc., by the author. 

420 



THE ORANGE IN COMMERCE 421 

It is a significant fact that though the orange thrives in the 
tropics it does not resent the sHght touch of frost which charac- 
terizes semi-tropical situations. It is also significant that the 
fruit grown in semi-tropical countries, especially those which 
have a more or less distinctly marked two-season climate, diiTers 
in character from the strictly tropical orange and is firmer, heavier, 
more sprightly in flavor and with much better keeping and carry- 
ing qualities. The tropical orange has but small commercial im- 
portance ; the semi-tropical orange rules- in the markets of the 
world. That the semi-tropical orange should have this distinctive 
character is most fortunate, for it ministers directly to the will 
for industry which is superior in semi-tropical countries. By the 
seven degrees of frost which the orange tree will endure without 
injury, it has gained the seventy degrees of north latitude through 
which its fruit freely seeks a market. Because, though the tropical 
orange would reach most distant markets in small quantities, it 
could never attain the commercial supremacy which .the fruit now 
enjoys. 

The sweet orange is a native of eastern Asia and was carried 
thence to India and to Asia Minor. It possibly reached Portugal 
from India through the early Portuguese navigators. Thus the dis 
tribution of the fruit was westward. The history of modern com- 
mercial orange^ growing consists of a series of progressive move- 
ments always trending westward and gaining in volume — the 
newer centers of production outstripping the older and ultimately 
largely displacing their product from the greatest markets of the 
upper divisions of the temperate zone. When the Moors intro- 
duced orange growing into Algeria and Spain they displaced the 
traffic from Asia Minor and gave the Mediterranean region for 
several hundred years undisputed possession of the markets of 
the north of Europe and possession also of the American demand 
when that arose. When the Spaniards and Portuguese carried 
the orange to the AVest Indies and to Florida they laid the foun- 
dation for an industry which American enterprise developed in 
Florida until that district not only contended wath the Mediter 
ranean region for American markets, but was planning to invade 
northern Europe by direct shiploads wdien the demonstration 
came that the climate of northern Florida and of the Gulf coast 
westward was- too treacherous for commercial ventures in orange 
growing — at least with the then popular varieties and methods of 
propagation. But as the Florida supply failed through the severe 
freezing of 1895, California came forward and is now^ not onlv 
supplying four-fifths of the oranges consumed in the United States, 
but is selling the highest priced oranges in the London market 
against a world of competitors. 



422 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



RELATION OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TO THE 
WORLD'S ORANGE PRODUCT 

Competition with the product of Cahfornia is working hard- 
ship in the Mediterranean region because this region can more 
than supply Europe, and needs American markets as an outlet. 
Italy has exported six million dollars worth of oranges and lemons 
in a year, but recently prices have declined and the interest is 
depressed. Every effort is being made to secure relief from local 
taxation and from duties imposed by north European countries. 
The Spanish product of oranges and lemons which ranks next to 
the Italian, has to meet heavy tariffs in all countries except the 
United Kingdom and the belief at Valencia is (U. S. Commercial 
Relations, Vol. 2, 1902, page 686) that the limit of British consump- 
tion of Valencia oranges at paying rates has been reached ; in fact, 
the British markets collapsed under the heavy shipments of 1901. 
When it is stated that the value of oranges imported into the 
United Kingdom in 1900 was $10,603,950, and such a free buyer 
has more than enough, it can be realized how important it is to 
the Mediterranean producers that the populous countries of central 
Europe should hold less strictly to agrarian interests which aim 
to hamper the entrance of food supplies even if^they can not 
themselves produce them. Manifestly the American product can 
only enter such markets with a fancy product which will win an 
extra price, except as a little difference in the ripening season 
may aft'ord an opportunity. 

The commercial position of the orange in the United States 
is also such as to awaken apprehension. The present strength 
of the situation lies in the protective tariff and the bcfc noir of 
growers is the possibility of making gaps in it by reciprocity treat- 
ies. The product of the West Indies is a direct menace to the 
Florida product, which meets it in point of market season, and the 
Mexican product, which is undergoing expansion at the hands 
of American capitalists, is constantly feared by the California 
growers because the Mexican railway will give it quick entrance 
to the great central States and consequent advantage in distri- 
bution to the East and the Northwest. The orange from the West 
Indies and South Florida is different from the California orange 
in main ripening season and in character of the fruit, but the dif- 
ferences do not give full relief. With the late ripening varieties, 
the California grower extends his shipments into the autumn and 
thus laps upon the early fruit from Florida and Jamaica, while the 
parts of California which bring earliest maturity to the fruit are 
shipping before the southern fruit is cleared away. In fact, Cali- 
fornia can keep the markets supplied with oranges fresh from the 
trees and in prime condition the year around. 



WHY CALIFORNIA LEADS IN ORANGES 423 

As to the difference in oranges grown nnder humid and arid 
conditions, the moisture being supplied by rainfall in one case 
and by irrigation in the other, there has been shown in the arid 
region orange a superior density, thinness and texture of rind, 
higher sugar and higher acid percentages and a more sprightly 
or vinous flavor. The popular conception of the superior sweet- 
ness of the orange grown in humid countries is due not to a greater 
amount of sugar in the juice, but to less amount of acid. The fol- 
lowing are the determinations of sugar and acid of fully ripe 
Southern California and Florida navel oranp'es : 



California Navel 
Florida Navel . . 



Total sugar. 


Citric acid, 


per cent. 


per cent. 


9.99 


1.45 


7.46 


0.95 



Of course, the quality of an orange is largely inherent in the 
variety, but all varieties are similarly changed by growth under 
humid or arid conditions of climate and soil, and this modifica- 
tion becomes a factor of much industrial importance. This fact 
is strikingly illustrated by the standing of the Navel orange in 
California. This variety has been grown for a century or more 
as the chief orange in Bahia, Brazil, whence it was taken to Cali- 
fornia. In Brazil it demonstrated no shipping qualities, and 
according to Burke ( U. S. Special Consular Reports, Vol 1, page 
411) would need to be picked before maturity if to be shipped, 
while as grown in California and Arizona it is picked at full 
maturity and is successfully shipped all over the United States 
and to Europe. 

Orange growing in Florida is recovering from serious reverses. 
The product of 1894 was about 6,000,000 boxes. Then came the 
disastrous freezing in December of 1894 and February, 1895, with 
a temperature of 14 degrees Fahrenheit at Jacksonville, and in the 
latter year only 75,000 boxes were shipped. In 1907 the product 
was about 3,000,000 boxes, produced in the central and southern 
parts of the State. In Louisiana the freezing of 1895 nearly anni- 
hilated the citrus fruit interest and there is thus far no disposition 
to resume production on a commercial scale. In the southwestern 
corner of Arizona there is a small orange industry which is suc- 
cessfully shipping Navel oranges to distant markets. Conditions 
favor early ripening and an advantage is secured by sale in advance 
of the main California product. From California the shipments 
of oranges beyond State -lines in 1907 were about 30,000 carloads 
or 12,000,000 boxes. The orange industry of the United States is 
now largely supplying the home demand for the fruit. Imports of 
oranges reached their highest value in 1883 at $3,010,662, and hay^ 



424 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



since then declined. The value in 1907 was $354,495 — but little 
more than one-tenth of the imports of twenty-five years ago. 

The orange industry of the United States is unique in the high 
social and financial standing of those who have engaged in it, and 
in the striking features of its development. Both in Florida and 
in California large scale production was first undertaken by north- 
ern men who had gained wealth and had lost health in the pursuit 
of it. They brought capital and commercial ability to the ventures 
which they exploited. The professional classes of the north also 
participated largely in the work, bringing scholarship, insight and 
experience in organization. There were a few also who possessed 
horticultural experience, but the other classes largely predom- 
inated. The result has been the development of an industry char- 
acteristically American in spirit and new in methods. It has bor- 
rowed very little from the practices of old world orange growers. 
Free from tradition and prejudice it proceeded rapidly upon the 
results of original investigation and experiment, establishing a 
system of culture and of commercial handling of the product which 
are without precedent in the older orange regions of the Avorld. 

THE ORANGE A STATE AFFAIR IN CALIFORNIA 

Thus far the discussion has been based upon the achievements 
of Southern California and the efifort made to assign them due 
credit for greatness and uniqueness. The relation of Southern 
California to other parts of the State in orange growing is not less 
important and significant. 

Citrus fruit trees have been successfull}^ grown in suitable situ- 
ations in northern California for nearly half a century. There is a 
famous orange tree at Bidwells Bar, in Butte county, which was 
started from an Acapulco seed in Sacramento in 1855, and planted 
out in Butte county in 1859, which has been generally made to 
stand sponsor for the demonstration of citrus conditions north of 
the Tehachipi mountains ( but it is not entitled to all the distinction 
which has been heaped upon it. In the fifties there were other 
orange and lemon trees growing in widely separated northern 
localities — in the valleys of the San Francisco Bay region, also near 
the rivers and among the low foot-hills on both sides of the Sacra- 
mento Valley. It was, even in early days, the proper thing to include 
citrus trees among ornamental dooryard plantings and one reason 
why ^he demonstration at Bidwells Bar was so widely accepted as 
complete, when it was brought forward as a guaranty for com- 
mercial planting in the later eighties, was because similar instances 
of successful old trees existed in many and widely separated places. 

This question naturally suggests itself: Why, if such early 
demonstration was had, was large commercial planting of the 
orange delaved at the north until after southern California became 



THE ORANGE IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 425 

famous for its orange product? Several good reasons can be ad- 
duced. In the first place a disposition toward wider planting did 
at one time arise and quickly subsided. In the later seventies when 
the general rush to fruit growing, which has resulted in the present 
vast extension of the interest, began, citrus fruits were not over- 
looked. There was a sharp demand for orange trees. Southern 
California nurseries had a large overstock of trees budded on China 
lemon roots which southern California planters had learned to 
despise as forcing excessive growth of tree and large, coarse fruit. 
The natural tendency of such a root, exaggerated by excessive irri- 
gation in the nursery, gave a stem as thick as a broom stick and 
higher than a man in a few months' time, and these soft mon- 
strosities were sent north by carloads, by astute tree speculators, 
and sold to unwary planters, who thought they were getting a 
great deal for their money. Such trees were planted in all sorts 
of situations and their broad leaves made a fine display as soon as 
planted. There were fond anticipations of evergreen orchards 
everywhere from the swamps to the hillsides. Then came the cold 
winter of 1878-9. The temperature in places reasonably situated 
was not very low — not lower than is frequently encountered in 
southern California and not low enough to injure well placed old 
trees, though it did destroy some ill-placed ones and helped to 
define suitable situations for citrus culture in the north as such 
temperatures have also defined them at the south. But the degree 
reached was fatal to those soft trees on a lemon foundation almost, 
everywhere, and the disappointment of the new planters who based 
calculations upon them, discouraged them from farther efforts to- 
ward citrus culture for some time. It was not a logical conclusion 
because a careful inquiry made after the frosts in 1879 elicited 
careful written statements from sixty-nine orange growers, living 
in thirty counties and fully justified this conclusion, which was at 
that time published : "this mass of testimony shows that orange 
growing is no longer an experiment in the north, and that, not- 
withstanding the severe frosts of such winters as this, orange and 
lemon trees can be profitably cultivated in nearly every county in 
the State, and by selecting favorable localities, no district, except 
it be situated in the high Sierra, need be without these most beau- 
tiful and useful fruits." 

But there was another and more logical reason why the well 
suited lands in the central part of the State were not at that time' 
given to citrus fruit culture. Citrus fruits require irrigation every- 
where; deciduous fruits, including the grape, do not require irri- 
gation except in places of shallow soil or light rainfall. Without 
waiting for irrigation facilities then, hundreds of thousands of acres 
■of deep valley loams were immediately available for the planting 
of deciduous fruits. The growers understood these fruits, while 



426 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



the orange to an English-speaking people was an unsolved problem. 
The long list of deciduous fruits had varieties to suit the tastes 
and ambitions of all planters and the opportunity for selling many 
dififerent fruits and their different products seemed illimitable. 
"The world for a market" seemed a reasonable proposition, for de- 
ciduous fruits and their products had been shipped to eastern 
markets since the first overland railway was opened in 1868, and 
very large prices were attained, just often enough to be alluring. 
No citrus fruits had been shipped out of the State on a commercial 
scale, and no one knew that they could be, profitably. The central 
and northern districts threw their full strength into the deciduous 
fruit interest and the result has justified the effort, for, at the pres- 





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Cover Crop in Orange Orchard of Mr. W. M. Bristol, East Highlands. 

ent time, the annual shipments of deciduous orchard fruits fresh 
dried and canned ; the grape, both fresh, as raisins and as wine and 
brandy, has reached a total value of about forty millions of dol- 
lars — almost all of it from the regions of California north of the 
Tehachipi mountains. The engrossing recjuirements of this grandly 
successful undertaking gave northern growers, packers and capi 
talists no leisure to think seriously of citrus fruit planting— tha't: 
was left for a decade and a half to the special attention of the 
southern California people, and they developed it splendidly for 



PRECOCITY OF THE ORANGE TREE 



427 



the settlement and upbuilding of their portion of the State — reach- 
ing a total value of product sold beyond State lines, of about 
eighteen millions of dollars. The chief reason, then, why, although 
citrus adaptations were demonstrated very early in the upper part 
of the State, the commercial planting was largely postponed to the 




Early Bearing of Budded Orange Tree in California. 

present decade, was that the people were too busy developing a 
greater fruit industry to which their conditions were superlatively 
suited. 

During the last few years new interest has arisen in citrus fruit 
growing in northern California and all the scattered experiences 
of the last half century are becoming of inestimable value in guid- 
ing this planting aright. There are several important reasons why 
the north has now turned to the orange. 




428 



THE ORANGE IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 429 

First : Deciduous fruit production has reached large volumes, 
margins have become reduced to those which assert themselves in 
any well established and extensive industry, and some of the early 
glamour has gone out of it It will henceforth proceed soberly, 
and consequently safely, to grand aggregates which no one can 
foresee, but it is readily demonstrable that with the present rush 
of population to the more wintry districts of the Pacific slope, the 
opening of Asiatic connections and the victories being attained 
each year in the distant East and in Europe, our production of 
deciduous fruits and their products will go steadily forward. In- 
creased interest in citrus fruit planting in northern California is in 
no sense a menace to the deciduous fruit industry. It is merely a 
new graft upon a very vigorous industrial stock. 

Second : Owing to natural conditions which will be briefly 
explained presently, orange growing can be pursued at the north 
without competition with the main crop in southern California. 
The northern California crop will be consumed before the bulk 
of the southern crop moves from the trees. 

Third: All California oranges have characteristics and quali- 
ties which are recognized as of distinctive excellence, and therefore 
have a commercial advantage, which, under a wise system of pro- 
tection against free entry of cheap tropical fruit, enables them to 
compensate the high grade American labor which is employed in 
their growth, packing and marketing, and leave a reasonable return 
to require the grower's efifort and investment. This being so, the 
production, so long as protection is' continued, justifies extension 
of the effort to produce an American orange for Americans. 

Fourth : Semi-tropical fruits are nature's demonstration of the 
existence in a place of a climate which promotes health, comfort 
and a maximum of physical and intellectual attainment in mankind. 
Probably all that is urged against tropical climates as enervating 
and depressing of human standards is true, but not a word of it 
applies to an arid semi-tropical climate, in which the blessing of 
dry air and freedom from the debilitating effect of temperature 
extremes rejuvenate the old and weary and bring the young to 
stature and stalwartness which all newcomers notice in the rising 
generation of Californians. ' Of the existence of such conditions 
a well-grown orange of the California type is unimpeachable evi- 
dence. It has brought a hundred thousand people and a hundred 
millions of capital to southern California which would not have 
come otherwise. In the conscious strength with which northern 
California has recently awakened to make systematic effort for 
settlement and development, the orange is accepted as an exponent 
of the possession of those natural characters of sky and air and 
soil, constituting the most desirable environments of human life — 
the highest desirability in the location of a home. 



430 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Fifth : It is but a corollary of the foregoing that the successful 
and profitable production of citrus fruits is par excellence the 
motive force in promoting colony efforts and in drawing into hor- 
ticulture the class of people which constitutes the most desirable 
element in the upbuilding of a great State — people who know what 
is noble and desirable in human life and desire it for their children; 
people who know how to secure what their aspirations and tastes 
approve; people who by intellectual force and training and by suc- 
cessful professional and industrial experience are prepared for at- 
tainment in the higher horticultural arts and in the new commer- 
cial efforts which make those arts profitable. The splendid devel- 
opment of southern California communities upon a horticultural 
basis points the way to achievements in other suitable parts of the 
State, and the citrus fruits become then the token, not alone of 
superior natural endowments, but of the type of manhood which 
can use them to the best advantage. None know this better than 
the southern California people themselves, and it is a demonstra- 
tion of the desirability both of the natural resources of northerr 
California in citrus lines and of citrus fruit culture itself, that in 
all the newer citrus regions at the north, there are to be found 
among the leading planters and promoters, southern Californians 
who have sold their early plantings at the south at high prices to 
newer comers and have started anew in the northern districts, 
where they find cheaper land, more abundant water supply and 
fruit which is marketed at an earlier date. 

DISTRIBUTION OF CITRUS CONDITIONS IN 
CALIFORNIA 

The claim has been made above that citrus culture conditions 
exist in suitable situations in central and northern California from 
Shasta to San Diego county, and historical evidence has been cited 
to prove it. It is so surprising that practically the same climate 
should be found through a distance of between seven and eigh'. 
degrees of latitude that many, even of those who have lived in 
California, do not appreciate the fact, nor know the explanation of 
it. An effort is made toward such explanation in Chapter I of this 
work. Even at the risk of repetition the subject will be reviewed 
with special reference to the occurrence of conditions affecting the 
growth of citrus fruits. 

First : California is not only blessed with benign ocean influ- 
ences, but northern California is additionally protected from low 
winter temperatures by the mountain barrier of the Sierra Nevada, 
extending southward from the multiplied masses of protecting 
elevations in the. Shasta region, while southern California enjoys 
the protection of the Sierra Madre and other uplifts on the north 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CONDITIONS 43;[ 

and east of her citrus region. Northern blizzards are, therefore, 
held back from entrance to California and are forced to confine 
themselves to southerly and easterly directions over the interior 
parts of the ^Pacific slope, while the great blizzards of the north- 
v^est traverse the Mississippi valley and, if they have sufficient 
impetus, extend to the gulf and carry destruction to semi-tropical 
growths even in northern Florida. The ocean then bringing 
warmth and the high mountains defending against cold, combine 
their influences to give nearly the whole length of California semi- 
tropical winter temperatures. 

Second : Although this striking similarity does exist, in citrus 
districts north and south, there is another even more startling 
proposition involved and that is the influence exerted by the 
presence of the coast range as the western boundary of the great 
interior valley of the State, and intervening between that great 
valley and the ocean. The several ridges of the coast range with 
their enclosed small valleys serve as a colossal wind-break against 
■northwest winds, which might otherwise, now and again, bring 
a temperature too low for citrus fruits, where now they are safe 
from injury. The chief effect of these mountains is to protect the 
northern interior valleys and foot-hills from the raw winds of early 
springtime and to allow the sun as he crosses each day higher 
in his course, to expend the increasing heat directly in promot- 
ing vernal verdure. The result is a protected interior region in 
central and northern California, of quick growth in all lines — early 
pasturage, early grain harvest and early fruit ripening. The valleys 
of southern California, which have thus far been largely developed, 
have no high range between them and the ocean. They are open 
on the west because the coast range of mountains takes a sharp 
turn eastward in the southern part of the State and afterward 
curves southward, passing along the eastern side of the chief 
productive region. The influence of this opening of the valleys of 
southern California is not so unfavorable as such opening would 
be at the north, because ocean winds are gentler and warmer there, 
and there is winter service rendered by this eastward trend of the 
southern California mountains, as has been said, but the fact 
remains that the absence of high barriers against ocean influences 
retards the springtime and causes a slow development of summer 
conditions and late ripening of fruits, while the presence of high 
barriers at the north so hastens springtime and summer heat, that 
early summer fruits in California are shipped from the north to the 
south — a thing which does not occur anywhere else in the northern 
hemisphere. It is due to this same early start which the local 
topography gives to the orange, followed by the high summer 
heat which is essential to the development of a good orange, that 
the orange reaches an acceptable commercial condition at an earlier 



432 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



date ill suitable interior places at the north and is at present being 
almost wholly shipped to eastern markets before free movem'ent 
begins at the south. This early marketing also relieves the growers 
of much anxiety and costly frost fighting, because the fruit, which 
is always more susceptible to injury than the tree, is out of the 
way before the frost period, which usually begins about Christmas,, 
is reached. 

There is in southern California, east of the mountains, a district 
which has thus far been but scantily developed where protection 
from ocean influences tends to early ripening of fruits. The same 
is true of some parts of Arizona adjacent, and small quantities 
of early fruits move westward and northward from that region. 
That region is not in view in this discussion, for too little has 
been accomplished in citrus lines to warrant conclusions which 
the present confident planting in that part of the State will soon 
supply. 

Third : Still another feature of local topography must bd 
mentioned as influencing citrus conditions north and south and 
explaining why winter temperature has fallen no lower at the 
north than at the south. At the north the snow fields of the high 
mountains are farther from the valleys and mesas, where citrus 
fruits are grown^ than they are at the south. The benches and low 
foot-hills of the Sacramento Valley, for instance, are forty to fifty 
miles from the high range to the east of them and there intervene 
countless ridges of high foot-hills and small valleys, and before 
the citrus plantations can be reached by the descending air currents 
they are considerably warmed by rustling over so much land which 
has been warmed by the ample winter sunshine. From many of 
the southern citrus regions one looks almost directly upward and 
outward upon the grand snow-clad mountains, whose crests are 
but fifteen to twenty-five miles away. It is a splendid scenic 
efifect — ripening oranges and dazzling snow fields in the same 
glance of the eye, but it is sometimes not so grand as a pomo- 
logical proposition. 

Fourth : Another protective influence for citrus fruit trees dur- 
ing the frosty period of December and January, is the low canopy 
of land fog which covers the interior valley of central and northern 
California much of the time at that season of the year and checks 
the radiation of ground heat, which is apt to take place rapidly 
under a clear sky. Though the nights are thus often protected 
from frosts, the day temperature is held low, which is also of 
account, because the citrus trees are held dormant, which is desir- 
able, as there is no fruit to ripen. On the other hand, the higher 
day temperature in southern California is valuable in that district 
because the later fruit is still maturing. The winter aspects of the 



THE ORANGE OUTLOOK 



433 



trees in northern and southern CaHfornia are therefore quite dif- 
ferent : in the north,. the dark green of dormancy; in the south, the 
gold of the fruit and the oft-protuding light green of the winter 
wood growth. In both regions all growth conditions seem good : 
each after its own kind, and the two, in a sense, complementary. 

In 1910 the outlook is for rapid extension of the orange product, 
particularly in the suitable lands on the eastern rims of the San 
Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. The orange product of the north- 
ern district is about one-eighth of the southern and will increase 
rapidly, for of about two million trees now growing, only half 
have attained bearing age and planting is still being freely under- 
taken. Three-quarters of all the trees north of the Tehachipi 
mountains are in the citrus districts of eastern Tulare county. 



THE GENERAL OUTLOOK FOR THE ORANGE 

At the present time orange growing has a very promising out- 
look. The prospect for much larger consumption, at the east and 
abroad, is very encouraging. The orange is passing from its old 
status as a luxury to its proper recognition as a staple winter fruit 
for dwellers in cold climates. For such use the agreeable acid 
and sprightly flavor of the California fruit especially commend it. 
The consumption of the fruit per capita, away from California, 
is still small and will be greatly increased when people know 
better its desirability and the reasonable prices at which it can 
be secured. This wider distribution is to be confidently expected 
and the rapid increase in population through the great west and 
north is each year giving California growers nearer markets of 
growing consumptive capacity. It will be of great advantage tc 
the whole country, as well as to California, to have production 
steadily increased. 

The development of the orange industry in California to utilize 
the splendid natural adaptations which have been discussed, to 
make good the large investments which have been made, and to 
afford a field for the profitable employment of the high quality of 
American citizenship which has entered the list of producers, sev- 
eral things are essential. Plrst, the advancement of horticultural 
art and science. Second, the maintenance of the protective tariff, 
as has already been suggested. Third, the extension of co-opera- 
tive handling and distribution of the product as now embodied 
in the successful operation of the California Fruit Growers' Ex- 
change and its auxiliaries in all the producing districts. Fourth, 
the pursuit of systematic and intelligent inquiry and experiments 
into the durability of the fruit in transit as affected by cultural 
and commercial practices,' and the reformation of policies and 
methods in accordance with the results of such investigation as 



434 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

conducted by Mr. G. Harold Powell of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and his associates. Every grower of oranges 
should familiarize himself with this work.* 



SOILS AND SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE 

While citrus conditions do exist through large areas of Cali- 
fornia, there is still danger of loss and disappointment through 
unwary individual investments and unwise locations of citrus 
colony enterprises. The tracts of land for orange planting even in 
a favorable citrus climate are limited in area and every citrus 
climate has numerous places where local meteorological conditions 
will prove destructive to the profit of the enterprise, if not to the 
life of the trees. The orange is a hardy tree, judged within its 
temperature limits, but there is no money in a tree which is sub- 
jected to any kind of hardship. For this reason the selection of 
a good depth of strong, free loam should be made, for such is 
essential not only to good growth of the young tree, but to its 
support through the long productive life which the orange enjoys. 
Depth of good soil is not only a storehouse of plant food, which 
will postpone the use of purchased fertilizers, but it is a reservoir 
of water so that irrigation can be applied in larger amounts at 
longer intervals. While it is quite possible to grow an orange 
tree and to secure good fruit on shallower soils, if conditions are 
kept just right by frequent use of water and fertilizers in just the 
right amounts, such conditions impose heavy burdens in their 
constant requirements of extra care and expenditure, and these 
are handicaps of no small economic importance. The tree can not 
live upon climate as a man may, because a tree can not speculate; 
it must have a good foundation in the earth as well as a good 
outlook in the sky. 

Growing orange trees on defective soils has brought disap- 
pointment and loss in all parts of California. Ample supplies of 
irrigation water available have encouraged over-irrigation where 
trees have been planted above hardpan, and drainage is absent. 
Dying-back and yellow leaf have appeared in some groves and 
have been accounted for by digging to find the roots bedded ij 
mud and slush. All plantings over clay sub-soils should be guarded 
against this danger. Digging deep holes and filling them with good 
soil is setting a trap for the future failure of the tree unless the 
deep hole is properly drained by the nature of the sub-soil or by 
artificial provision. On the other hand, planting over a gravelly 
sub-soil is often disappointing, because the water passes through 
the sub-soil as through a sieve and the tree shows distress although 

* "The Decay of Oranges While in Transit from California," by G. Harold 
Powell, Pomologist in charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage. Bulletin 12."?, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D. C, 1908. 



SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE 435 

generous amounts are applied to the surface. Wide observation 
through the State teaches that such warnings are needed by the 
unwary. There has also been injury to trees from planting over 
sub-soils carrying excess of lime.* 

Local temperature conditions even in sections generally suited to 
orange culture should be carefully ascertained. Frosty places must 
be avoided. A few feet difference in elevation may change profit 
to loss, but one must not therefore draw the hasty conclusion that 
all small elevations are favorable. The experience of the last few 
years shows that nothing is, on the whole, more dangerous than 
the warm bottom land in a small elevated valley which seems natur- 
ally protected on all sides. There are many such places which are 
far more treacherous than the uplands of the broad valleys, which 
may be considerably lower. The benches around the sides of the 
small valley may be safe and the bottom of the same valley dan- 
gerous because there is no adequate outflow for cold air to the 
large valley below. Look out for small valleys which have divides 
of crumpled hills where they debouch into the main valley. Cold 
air can be dammed and held back ; consequently the low land of 
a small valley may be worse than lower land in the main valley, 
because in the latter there are air currents which prevent accumu- 
lation of cold air in particular places. These air movements make 
some plantings on the upper plains of the main valley safe, though 
the whole region may seem to the eye rather flat and low, but, of 
course, broad sinks of the main valley may also be dangerous. Too 
great elevations are to be guarded against. Where one approaches 
the reach-down of mountain temperatures and loses the warming 
influences of the valley mesas, the danger line is at hand. 

An ample water supply is essential. Small waterings which may 
bring satisfactory growth to a young tree are no measure of the 
needs of a bearing tree. The orange is using water all the year, 
as discussed in the chapter on Irrigation. Its crop requires nearly 
a year to reach maturity. Both in leaf growth and fruit growth it 
nearly doubles the activity of the decidous tree and all the time it 
is pumping water with its roots and pouring forth water into the 
air through its exposed surfaces. No investment in orange planting 
can be profitable without assurance of adecjuate water supply. 

PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE 

The orange is grown from cuttings, layers, and seeds. Growth 
from the seed is the method almost exclusively followed, and by 
far the best, but the others will be mentioned briefly. 

Growth from Cuttings. — This method of propagation is de- 
scribed in the chapter on Propagation. 

* "Marly Subsoils and Chlorosis of Citrus Trees," by E. W. Hilgard. Circular 27, 
University Experiment Station, Berkeley. ' , 



436 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Growth from Layers. — The orange roots readily by layering, the 
drooping branches being partly cut through, buried in the soil with 
the terminal shoot above the ground. Layers must be kept moist. 
Layering may be employed to obtain a few plants easily, but, other- 
wise, it cuts no figure' in propagation. Layers and cuttings, of 
course, reproduce the original variety without recourse to budding. 

Growth from Seed. — The orange is grown upon seedlings of 
the common or sweet orange ; the bitter orange or orange of Seville, 
generally called "Florida sour stock," and of the Pomelo or Grape 
Fruit. Good plump seed should be selected in growing orange 
seedlings either for their own fruitage or to use as stocks for 
budding. 

When seedlings for fruiting are grown, select seed from a choice 
variety in a situation where other citrus species are not grown; 
but the orange can not be trusted to come true from seed, and, 
more than this, the seedling class for fruiting purposes has been 
practically abandoned as unprofitable to plant, though fruit from 
old seedling trees is occasionally sold at a profit. 

In securing seed the fruit is allowed to rot and when thoroughly 
decayed, it is pulped by mashing in a barrel, and the mass is 
washed, a little at a time, on a coarse sieve, the pulp passing 
through, and the seed being caught on the wires, and pieces of skin 
thrown out. The plump seed will sink if thrown into water, and 
the imperfect can be skimmed from the top. The seed should never 
be allowed to dry, and unless it is to l)e sown at once, should be 
stored by mixing with moist sand, from which it can be afterwards 
removed by sifting ; or it can be kept for a time in water, changing 
the water from time to time to prevent souring. The best tmie 
for sowing orange seed is after the ground has become warm in 
the spring. 

Orange seedlings are grown either in boxes or in the open 
ground. In either case a rich sandy loam which Avill not bake 
should be secured or artificially made by mixing sand with rich 
garden loam. Boxes of about two square feet area and six inches 
deep are convenient to handle. The bottom should have holes, or 
sufficient crevices for good drainage. Fill the boxes about four 
inches with the prepared soil, place the seeds about an inch and a 
half apart each way, and sift over them about an inch of the soil., 
or a little less of the soil, and a layer of clear sand if it is at hand. 
It is essential that the soil should be kept moist, and light sprinkling 
daily or every other day with water that has been warmed by 
standing in the sun, is desirable. Seed can be sown in boxes in the 
house at any time, if plenty of light and heat are given. If the 
boxes are to be out-of-doors, it is best to sow in the spring, and 
to rip up a cover of cheap cotton cloth, suspended about a foot 
above the surface, to prevent effect of frost at night, and of burning 



THE ORANGE NURSPJHY 



437 



by sun heat by clay. The seedlings usually appear in about- six 
weeks, and with good care in weeding and keeping sufficiently, but 
not excessively, moist, they will make a growth of about a foot 
the first season. Some growers collect the boxes in a sheltered 
place, and build over them a lath house, tacking on old sacks or 
other cloth, to shield from sun and frost. The lath house keeps 
animals from running over the boxes, etc. 

Growing seedlings in an open bed involves about the same oper- 
ations. To guard against intrusion, it is advisable to make board 
sides to the bed about a foot high, and to make lath frames which 
will reach across, resting on the edge boards. A cloth sun-and-frost 
shade is also desirable, to be laid over the lath frames when it 
seems needed. Beds should be made narrow enough so that one 
can easily reach half way across from each of the long sides for 
weeding, etc. In open seed beds it is usual to sow the seed broad- 
cast. 

The Orange Nursery. — Planting out in nursery is usually done 
after the ground is thoroughly warmed in the spring, and the seed- 
lings are then about a year old. The preparation of nursery ground 
and the planting out of the seedlings can be done as described in 




a b c 

Root systems of seedlings. 

a Florida sour. b Pomelo. c Sweet seedling. 



438 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Chapter VIII. Orange seedlings should, however, be given greater 
distance apart than is usual for deciduous trees, because the orange 
remains longer in nursery, and because it is often desirable, when 
taking up, to sack the ball of earth embracing the roots. If the 
roots are not to be sacked, about nine inches will do between the 
plants; if to be sacked, the distance should be twice as great. The 
rows should not be too close in the orange nursery. If horse cul- 
tivation is to be used, at least four feet between the rows should be 
allowed, and even greater distance is desirable. In taking the seed- 
lings from the seed beds, a few should be lifted at a time, and their 
roots kept shaded and moist until the ground closes on them in 
the nursery row. To get an even stand in the nursery, small and 
weak plants should be placed by themselves, or set in boxes to take 
another year before going into nursery. 

Young trees in nursery are very liable to frost injury, and it 
is wise to protect them by some sort of a cover during the winter. 
A framework covered with cypress brush is often used, the whole 
being cleared away in the spring, to allow of summer cultivation. 
Cultivation of trees in nursery is about the same as with deciduous 
fruit trees. The horse should be used, and the surface kept per- 
fectly pulverized. The cultivator should follow irrigation as soon 




Bearing Pomelo budded to orange: leaving side branch 
to keep up circulation. 



as the soil will admit of it. Frequency of irrigation of nursery 
depends, of course, upon local conditions. Some give two or three 
irrigations, by running the water in a little trench alongside the 
rows, at intervals of two weeks, for a time after planting, and then 
irrigate once a .month during the summer. It is important that 
irrigation should not be continued too late into the fall, because 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING ORANGES 



439 



the young tree should harden its wood before cold weather. Nor 
is it desirable that the growth be too rapid. A good growth of 
sound Avood is better than extra size. 

Length of Time in Nursery. — Seedlings are usually budded after 
being one or two years in the nursery, or at two to three years 
from the planting of the seed. At a convenient time in the winter 
the lower shoots and thorns are removed from the seedlings, so 
as to leave a clear stem of about six inches for the convenience of 
the budder. 

BUDDING THE ORANGE' 

The orange root is the best foundation for an orange tree, and 
the seedling sweet orange has been the main reliance. The seed- 
ling of the Florida sour orange has been used to some extent to 
escape gum disease. It has not been entirely free, though conceded 
to be less subject to the trouble. Oranges have also been worked 
upon pomelo seedlings, which force a strong growth, root deeply 
and are satisfactory. Of course many lemon, and recently many 
pomelo trees, have been worked over to the orange, but in these 
cases the orange root was below the other wood. All lemon roots 
are not suitable for the orange. The Japanese practice of dwarfing 
with the citrus trifoliata has never prevailed in this State. Recently 
the trifoliata stock has been used considerably to secure earlier 
ripening of fruit, and the tree claimed to be sufficiently free growing, 
but experience favors the other xoots for standard trees. 




Orange top on lemon trees eighteen months after budding. 



^^Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Budding' is almost exclusively adopted for working in desirable 
varieties. The best time to bud is about the time the new growth 
starts on the seedling in the spring, though some practice budding 
in midsummer and fall. Good, well-matured buds only should be 
used ; those from both base and tip of the shoots are frequently 
defective. The method of budding described in Chapter IX is that 
usually employed in budding citrus trees, and the rules for loosen- 
ing the ligature, etc., are similar. Midsummer buds are apt to have 
soft growth at the coming of cold weather; fall buds remain dor- 
mant until spring; spring buds start to grow almost immediately, 
and have the benefit of the whole summer season for growth and 
maturing of wood. 

After the bud has started out w^ell, the top of the stock should 
be removed at a short distance above the bud, and suckers on the 
old stock should be continually looked for and removed. The tender 
shoot of the bud may be protected by tying to the stub, and when 
the growth of the bud has become strong enough to support itself, 
the old stock is smoothly sawn away above the bud and the wound 
covered with liquid grafting wax, or paint. 

The care of budded trees in nursery is similar to that of the seed- 
lings of the previous year. If too great a tendency to branch low 
down is observed, the tips of the lower shoots should be pinched, 
but it is not desirable to underprune much ; the retention of the 
lower branches thickens the stem. Sometimes a very rank growth 
on the bud will need a stake to strengthen it or to protect it from 
blowing out. The intrusion of gophers and other vermin should be 
resolutely and persistently guarded against. 

Working over Old Trees. — Old orange trees can be transformed 
into improved varieties either by budding or by grafting, as de- 
scribed at the close of Chapter IX, though re-working by grafting 
has been almost entirely superseded by budding. The common way 
to bud over an old tree is to cut back part of the branches and 
force out new shoots, the best of which are selected for budding 
and the others removed. Sometimes only a part of the tree is 
removed at first, and when the new buds have grown out on that, 
the other part is similarly treated. Others remove the whole top 
except a single low branch to maintain sap circulation until after 
the new buds start. 

Recently the practice of budding into old bark has been widely 
adopted as the quickest way to secure a new tree. As with working 
into old bark in other trees, it is necessary to take an older bud and 
a larger, thicker shield of bark behind it, than when budding into 
younger stock. Some remove the wood from the back of the shield, 
but generally it is not done. The following is an outline of practice 
approved by the Redlands Horticultural Club : 



PLANTING THE ORANGE 



441 



Keep the buds carefully in a damp cloth. Slide the bud upward, above the 
cross-section. Bind around the bark, steering clear of the buds proper, a 
wrapping of waxed cloth, already prepared, three-fourths of an inch wide. 
When enough of this has been wrapped about the tree trunk or branch to 
keep the bark and the bud in place, rub the end of the muslin strip with the 
handle of the budding knife, down upon the muslin already wound about the 
bark. This will hold the waxed wrapping firmly in place. From ten days to 
two weeks after the buds have been inserted, cut ofif the entire top of the tree, 
above the buds, and cover the stump of trunk or large branch with grafting 
wax — applied hot — with a brush. 

As soon as the wax is put on — and it must be put on as soon as the top 
is sawed off — whitewash the tree, over the waxed cloth, also over the bud, 
over every part of the tree that is left, except the stump ends, to which the 
hot wax has been applied. Immediately the buds will begin to grow. From 
ten days to two weeks after whitewashing take off the muslin wrap, and, if the 
work has been done carefull)', in accordance with the above directions, 90 per 
cent of the buds will develop- — perhaps more. A prime necessity for this work 
is a razor-sharp budding knife. 

There is a variation in practice in cutting back the stock above 
the bud. Instead of cutting back at once, heroically, as just de- 
scribed, some girdle the branch or cut back part of the top at a 
distance above the bud, cutting down to the bud after it shows 
good strong growth, tying the young growth to the stub at first 
to protect it. Others insert the bud in the fall, cutting back to start 
the bud after the fruit on the old top is gathered. It is very im- 
portant to watch for suckers below the bud and remove, or pinch 
them back, to make a bunch of leaves. The growth from the bud 
itself often needs pinching to induce low branching. Twig-budding 
can also be used on the orange by the method already described for 
the olive. 

Budding in old trees is best done in the spring, when the sap 
flow is strong, but, as stated, can be done in the fall and the bud 
allowed to lit dormant until spring. 

PLANTING ORANGES IN ORCHARD 

As already stated, orange trees are planted out at greater age 
than deciduous fruit trees. Budded trees are given one or two 
years' growth in nursery and one or two years' growth on the bud. 
which, added to the year in seed bed, makes them three to four 
years of age from the sowing of the seed. Seedlings, to be planted 
out as such, are allowed two years' growth in the nursery, which 
makes them three years old from the seed. For this length of time 
and the unusual care involved in their growth, taking up from nur- 
sery and preparation for carriage, orange trees of planting age arc 
of much greater cost than deciduous fruit trees. 

Since the growing of seedlings for their fruit has practically 
ceased, the distance between the trees in orchard planting has 
ranged 'from twenty to twenty-four feet. All the varieties now 
propagated are quick to bear fruit, and if properly shaped will find 
ample space in these distances — the greater distance on the richer 
soil as a rule. ' 



442 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Preparation of land for orange planting by deep and thorough 
cultivation and laying off to secure straight rows by the square, 
quincunx, and hexagonal methods have been quite fully discussed 
in Chapter X, and Chapter XI has suggestions for planting, many 
of which are applicable to the setting of orange trees. There are, 
however, special methods employed in lifting the orange trees from 
the nursery rows and in placing them in permanent position, which 
will be outlined. 

The orange, in common with other evergreen trees, is exceed- 
ingly sensitive to exposure of its roots, and for this reason the 
handling of the young trees is very different from that of ordinary 
orchard trees. Thiee ways are employed for securing this constant 
moisture of the roots, as follows : 

Packing in Wet Straw. — As fast as the trees are lifted from the 
nursery ground by digging carefully so as to loosen and secure all 
the roots possible, they are packed in damp and partially rotten 
straw, proper receptacles being at hand so that the roots are not 
exposed by carrying them any distance. In taking up, all roots 
bruised by the spade are cleanly cut with a sharp knife. The tap- 
root is cut away at a depth of a foot or so from the surface. This 
use of wet straw, if faithfully carried out, will answer well in taking 
trees short distances for planting, but the use of a puddle on tne 
roots before packing in damp straw gives additional assurance oi 
success. 

Puddling the Roots. — This method is also used for deciduous 
fruit trees, as mentioned in Chapter XL It consists in having a thin 
puddling of loamy soil with preponderance of sand rather than of 
clay, into which the roots are dipped as soon as the tree is lifted 
from the nursery. This mixture, which should be about as thick as 
cream, may be made in a hole in the ground, or, better still, in a 
box or cask large enough to allow complete plunging of the roots. 
As soon as dipped, and with all the mud which will adhere, the roots 
are packed in wet straw. If the trees are to remain thus packed 
for any length of time, the greatest care must be observed to keep 
the straw damp, and water must be applied gently to avoid washing 
the puddle from the roots. 

Sacking the Roots with a Ball of Earth. — This is a very satis- 
factory way to move orange trees, and if it is well done, the tree 
does not wilt, and may be moved long distances and handled more 
freely than the puddled roots. To ball and sack trees, dig a trench 
along one side of the row about six inches away from the trees, 
and about a foot and a half deep. By careful digging under each 
tree from this trench the tap-root is reached, and severed by a cut 
with a sharp spade. The side roots are also cut by thrusting the 
spade down on the three sides not opened by the trench. The top 



PLANTING ORANGE TREES 443 

earth is carefully removed nearly down to the highest lateral roots, 
and after being sure that the roots are severed all around, the 
tree is lifted out with the ball of earth which encloses the remain- 
ing roots. This ball is rounded off carefully and then placed 
on a half of a grain sack or other piece of burlap, the corners of 
which are drawn up and tied around the stem of the tree with 
baling rope. It is also an additional surety of safety to allow 
the baling rope to run under and around the ball to aid in hold- 
ing it together. The balled trees must be carefully handled so 
as not to break the ball, which would result in tearing to pieces, 
as well as exposing, the roots. 

The manner of handling the trees depends somewhat upon 
the character of the nursery soil. Successful balling of course 
requires a certain amount of adhesiveness in the soil. 

One can not be too careful in the handling of orange trees. 
Though they will stand harsh treatment when in permanent 
place, they must be most carefully transplanted. Lifting from 
the nursery when the soil is too dry, exposure of the roots, or 
careless planting, will consign the tree to a slow, sickly growth, 
and often kill it outright. 

Cutting Back at Transplanting. — The rule of reducing the 
top to compensate for the loss of roots, is vital in moving orange 
trees, but sometimes cutting back is carried too far and subse- 
quent growth is checked rather than promoted. Some growers 
cut back the young trees al little while before lifting them from 
the nursery. Some take off all leaves after planting out, aiid 
claim that growth starts sooner and more strongly, but it is 
doubtful whether defoliation is advisable, except in case of wilting, 
when it is necessary. 

Digging Holes and Setting Trees. — The same considera- 
tions which require extra care in lifting trees for nursery, rule 
in putting them in permanent place. All authorities on the sub- 
ject specify exceptional care in preparing the tree holes as a 
profitable investment on the part of the planter. Large and 
deep holes are commended, provided the planting is done in a 
deep, free soil. Deep holes would be more injurious than bene- 
ficial in a tight subsoil, unless drainage were furnished, but there 
are good orange trees now bearing in such places — good enough 
at least to be an ornament and acceptable fruit producers for 
family use. 

On large-scale planting in deeply prepared soil, holes large 
enough to allow good spreading of the roots are sufficient. 
Handling the soil at planting has been fully described in Chaptei 
XI, and the importance of bringing the soil into firm contact 
with the roots has been urged. The use of water in planting 
citrus fruit trees is especially desirable. Transplanting should 



444 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



be done just as the growth is starting in the late spring or eariy 
summer, and this is the opening of the dry season and rains can 
not be expected. Therefore when the roots are arranged and 
the top soil lightly tramped around them, water is run in the 
hole and the earth compacted around the roots by water settling. 
After the water has settled away, the hole is filled and the sur- 
face left loose to prevent evaporation. 

These instructions apply to the planting out of trees which 
are taken up with long roots and puddled. In planting out balled 
trees, the sack is not removed, but after the tree is embedded in 
the earth, the tying rope is cut. The sack soon decays in the soil. 

Orange trees can be successfully transplanted at different 
times of the year, but the best time, as just stated, is after the 
ground gets well warmed by the spring sunshine. The date 
at which this condition arrives depends upon locality. Experience 
seems to indicate that the young orange tree is in best condition 
to transplant just as the new growth is starting out, and prefer- 
ably when it has not grown out more than two inches. 





Good form secured by training. 



nu 



Fig. 1. Orange tree at planting 

in orchard, 

3 feet high. 



PRUNING THE ORANGE 



446 



Great care must be taken that transplanted orange trees do 
not become dry after planting. The methods of irrigation are 
described in Chapter XV. Good cultivation should also attend 
the orange from its first planting onward. This subject is fully 
discussed in Chapter XIII. 



PRUNING THE ORANGE 

All the considerations urged in Chapter XII in favor of low- 
headed and strongly-branched trees apply to the orange, though 
the habit of the tree in growth and bearing requires different 
pruning policies. The orange tree is more disposed naturally to 
assume a good form than most other trees, and for this reason 
most experienced growers declare their belief in pruning as little 
as possible. This is unquestionably good policy providing atten- 
tion enough is given to securing a shapely and convenient tree, 




Fig. 2. Branch form of orange before 

removing lower branches. • 

and TO overcome the tendency in the young tree to run out very 
long shoots which result in unsymmetrical shoulders with hollows 
beneath them and obviate a weeping habit, which interferes with 
irrigation and cultivation and prevents the development of good 
bearing space above. It is so easy to bring the orange tree into 
good form by a little hard thinking about what shape is desirable 
and a little timely cutting and pinching to secure it. 



446 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



It has long been held that the orange tree should assume a 
compact wall of foliage. The interior of the tree being consid- 
ered merely the framework to support this and pump sap into 
it. Recently the importance of removing dead wood from the 




Fig. 3. Good form of five-year-old orange tree. 



center of the tree is being urged, even though the cost is con- 
siderable, and a rational thinning of branches to admit light and 
air in sufiticient amount to secure good fruit nearer the center 
of the tree is also being advocated and practiced to some extent, 




' Hu 



Fig. 4. Branch form of orange six months 
after planting. 



PRUNING THE ORANGE 



447 



All these progressive tendencies carry the orange nearer to the 
application of the principles of pruning which are discussed in 
detail in Chapter XII, including the rational recourse to more 
severe pruning or cutting back to induce a growth of new and 
stronger wood for subsequent bearing. In other cases cutting 
back of varieties inclined to make a rank wood growth, like the 
Valencia Late, to encourage a better supply of fruiting wood, 
is being advocated. It seems clear that there are important ends 
to be gained by more pruning of the orange tree, and by earnest 
thinking and close observation along this line. 




Fig. 5. Tendency of clipped branches to rise. 

It has been held that it was necessary to prune the young 
tree to quite a high head at first to allow for the natural droop 
of the branches, and the result is seen in many young trees with 
slim stems and umbrella-like tops. It is better to develop a stout 
stem by allowing for a time a low growth upon it and then raise 
it later by removal of the lower growth which has done good 
service and outlived its usefulness. By wise underpruning it is 
possible not only to secure a shapely and convenient tree but 
also to so train the lower growth that it shall present good, low 
bearing wood without groveling in the dust. 

Unquestionably the drooping habit of budded orange trees is 
largely due to their treatment. A grower who does not believe 
in pruning allows the branches to extend too far horizontally. 



448 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



and the weight of the foliage and the early fruiting brings the 
branches to the ground. To relieve the lower branches of the 
young tree of a part of this weight will enable them to assume 
a better direction, and this slight relief at first will prevent much 




Fig. 6. Branch form of five-year-old 
tree built down. 



branch-sawing in later years. The young tree as it comes from 
the nursery usually starts upon an upright course. If stopped 
at about three feet it can be brought along to develop strong 
and well-arranged branches, much as has been described for 
deciduous fruit trees in Chapter XII. The adjacent engraving, 
Fig. 1, shows a young tree in planting condition, stopped at three 
feet and needing only a slight cutting back of the laterals to be 
ready to begin its orchard life. If young trees are transplanted 




Fig. 7. Foliage form of five-year-old tree. 



SHAPING THE ORANGE TREE 449 

short distances and at the right time they do not need so much 
cutting back as is commonly given them. If allowed to grow 
from the start shown in Fig. 1, pruning only to prevent long 
branches from running out at random, and removing branches 
which may start strongly from near the base, the tree will 
assume the branch-form shown in Fig. 2 and at from two to three 
years after planting in the orchard. At about this age the removal 
of lower branches begins, as they have served their purpose in 
shading the trunk and bearing the first fruit. These branches are 
removed one by one until, when the tree is five years in the orchard, 
it has lost all branches below the two-foot line except the one branch 
marked "a" of which the upright-growing part will be retained. 
The higher branches assume the more horizontal habit, too great 
out-shooting is repressed and at about five years orchard-age the 
tree attains a height of about twelve feet and is of the general form 
shown in Fig. 3. The next few months will bring its foliage to the 
ground to remain there or to be under-trimmed, as the notion of 
the grower may be. 

BUILDING DOWN AND NOT SAGGING DOWN 

It is perfectly feasible and rational to secure a good form of 
low tree without removal of large branches and without relying 
upon the sag of the branches from a high head. It requires 
rather more watchfulness and attention and study of the subject 
than some growers desire to give, but the results when attained 
are very satisfactory. The method is that of J. H. Reed, of 
Riverside, and has been followed by him for a number of years 
with his own orchard and others of which he has had charge. 
It will be found readily intelligible with the help of the sketches. 
Mr. Reed would begin with a young nursery tree like that already 
shown in Fig. 1. He does not believe in much cutting back 
before planting providing a fair amount of roots are left in the 
ball at transplanting. If the tree has been properly planted and 
cared for, it will soon begin to put out new growth, usually first 
along the stem, the strongest growth being lowest down. As 
many of these young branches along the stem as are not desired 
for permanent branches, are rubbed off, the earlier the better, at 
least before Avoody fiber is deposited in them. Mr. Reed rubs 
ofif promptly all below a point about two feet from the ground, 
if there is a prospect of getting sufficient good branches above 
that point. If not he saves them down to eight or even twelve 
inches lower if need be. 

Mr. Reed's idea is to build the head along a considerable 
length of the trunk and not have the branches bunched at the 
top, and this is the same idea that is urged in the development 
of the trunk of the deciduous fruit tree in Chapter XII. He finds 



450 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



it impossible to do this in the nursery because if it is attempted 
to form a head 18 or 24 inches along the upper portion of the stem 
instead of one bunched near the top of it, the lower branches will 
appropriate most of the sap and the upper portion will not be 
well developed; while if this upper story is well established in 
the nursery the lower portion can be built on without detriment 
to the upper, if nutriment sufficient for both is furnished. Fig. 
4 will show approximately the branch-form of the young tree at 
about six months from planting and the shoots with which the 
building-down is begun. The first step is to check the drooping 
habit. Upon this point Mr. Reed says : 

The common notion that the branch of the Navel orange naturally tends 
down is a mistake which grows out of me fact that in its rapid growth the 
new part of the stems and large leaves are so loaded with sap that they pull 
the stems from their natural upright position, and, unless relieved, hold them 
there till the deposit of woody fiber fixes the branches in the drooping or 
unnatural position. If the tips of these rapidly growing branches, with their 
heavy leaves, be clipped at the right time, the branches will spring back to the 
erect position, where they will remain to send out new branchlets. It is won- 
derful how the orange tree can be molded like a thing of wax by pinching and 
clipping here and there, if done at the right time. 

Fig. 5 shows the result of this clipping of heavy shoots to 
allow them to assume a more upright growth and the encour- 
agement of new shoots below the two-foot mark. Fig. 6 gives 
the branch-form of a five-year-old tree, with its lower story of 
bearing wood well developed, and Fig. 7 is the foliage-form of 
the same tree, about fifteen feet high, with its leaves and fruit 
reaching to the ground. As to how low the branches should be 
allowed, Mr. Reed says that until recently he has thought it best 
to keep the lower branches clipped back so that the fruit would 
not touch the ground, but he is persuaded that it is better to let 
them come to the ground even if considerable fruit rests on it. 
He finds that many of the best orchardists do this, and claim 
that there are really less culls among the fruit on the ground 
than on the less-protected branches above. 

Later Pruning of the Orange. — After the form of the orange 
is well established the aim should be to preserve a compact, sym- 
metrical and convenient form. It is desirable that weak wood 
should be removed; dead interior branches, which have given up 
the struggle for the light, should also be removed. It is an 
appalling undertaking to get into the inside of an old orange 
tree and saw off and drag out the dead wood but, as already stated, 
the conviction is growing that this should be done. Of the grow- 
ing shoots there is a reasonable amount of thinning to be done. 
The clipping back of ambitious shoots multiplies laterals. There 
should be a good cover of leaves, but the crowding of leaves on 
leaves excludes light and air and weakens the tree by lessening 



THE WASHINGTON NAVEL 



451 



the vigor of leaf action. Dead, twigs which appear among good 
bearing shoots should always be removed. The gourmand shoots 
or suckers should be repressed, unless, by clipping, one can be 
turned into a branch where a branch is needed. 

DISEASES OF THE ORANGE 

The orange is thus far subject to few diseases in California. 
The most grievous is the so called gum disease, which as analo- 
gous to the gumming of other trees and will be discussed in the 
chapter treating of tree diseases. Cracking of the fruit is a trouble 
which has never been fully explained. 

There are several serious insect enemies of the orange, which 
will be discussed in the chapter on that subject. The "black 
smut," which makes leaves and fruit unsightly in some parts of 
the State, is a fungoid growth upon the exudations of insects, and 
can be prevented by removing its cause. 

VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE 

Though many varieties of the orange have been introduced 
in California, but few are largely grown. During the last fifteen 
years there has been a pervading disposition to concentrate upon 
the Washington Navel, and, except to get other varieties either 
earlier or later to extend the season, there seems little reason 
to go beyond the Navel for commercial purposes. Not only have 
recent plantings been predominantly of this variety, but old trees 
of other kinds have been very largely budded over to it, and this 
work is still going on at a rapid rate. 

As already claimed in the opening pages of this chapter, the 
Washington Navel is the greatest commercial orange in the 
world. As it goes from California into the world's commerce it 
is a combined product of grower's skill and climatic conditions 
operating upon its own natural qualities and characters. Neither 
of these factors alone could achieve its present position. The 
navel mark is neither peculiar to it nor determinative of it, for 
there are other navels which are inferior here and our navel is 
inferior elsewhere; and even in Bahia, whence it came, it has no 
such quality and standing, because in coming to California it 
passed from humid, tropical to arid, semi-tropical environment. 
As already suggested, the tropical orange is not in the same class 
with the semi-tropical from the point of view of commerce. Trade 
in tropical oranges is local or limited; trade in semi-tropical 
oranges is world-reaching. The orange produced in an arid, semi- 
tropical climate is dense and compact, firm and better in keep- 
ing and carrying characters. It is also of more sprightly flavor 
and richer composition. Those who are disposed to exalt the 



452 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

humid air orange for superior sweetness forget that the California 
orange, as compared, for instance, with the Florida product, has 
not less sugar but adds to it more acid; being, in fact, not less 
sweet but more sour. As both sugar and acid are nutritive sub- 
stances, the superiority of the California fruit from a dietary 
point of view is clear. Such an orange, enclosed in a thin skin of 
silky texture and beautiful finish, comes very close to an ideal 
upon which to found an industry. 

Although California has apparently no need for changes of 
type in oranges and has worked diligently and long for the 
attainment of the types which are at present supreme in her 
industry, there is still opportunity for improvement within the 
types. Such improvement is probably to be attained not by 
hybridizing, but by selection. The Washington Navel, like other 
members of the citrus family, is keenly disposed to variation and 
some of its variations have been named and propagated as the 
lists below will show. The pursuit of such and other improve- 
ments is now being systematically taken up at the Citrus Experi- 
ment Station at Riverside which is a branch of the University 
of California Experiment Station at Berkeley. 

Of the few varieties which are now largely grown the follow- 
ing is the ripening season : 

Navel and Seedlings, November to May; Malta Blood, March 
to June ; Mediterranean Sweets, April to July ; St. Michaels, May 
to July; Valencia Late, June to September. 

Washington Navel (Bahia, Riverside Navel). — Fruit large, solid, and heavy; 
skin smooth and of a very fine texture; very juicy; high flavored, with melt- 
ing pulp; is practically seedless, only in exceptional cases are seed found; tree 
is a good and prolific bearer, medium thorny, a rapid grower, although it does 
not attain a very large size; bears when very young, commencing to bear as 
early as one year old from the bud; ripens early. This variety was imported 
from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by Mr. W. Sanders, of the Department of Agricul- 
ture at Washington, and in 1874 two trees were received from Washington 
by Mrs. Tibbetts, of Riverside, Cal. Trees were also received about the same 
time by Alexander Craw, but the Riverside trees were first in fruit, and the 
excellence of the variety being at once recognized, it was propagated rapidly 
and took the name Riverside Navel from the place where its characteristics 
were first made known. As it came to be grown largely in other districts as 
well, a broader name, Washington Navel, recognizing its receipt from the 
national capital, was adopted. 

There is much tendency to variation in the Washington Navel, and sub- 
varieties are to be found involving departures in the direction of thinness and 
silkiness of rind, etc., as well as interior characters. The first to become 
prominent of these is Thomson's Improved Navel with A. C. Thomson, of 
Duarte, Los Angeles County, claimed to have produced by a process of prop- 
agation, but which is believed to be a natural variation. It is a very refined 
fruit; generally held to be too fine for ordinary handling. 

Two new variations, developed on the propagating grounds of the San 
Dimas Citrus nurseries of R. M. Teague are as follows : 

Golden Buckeye Navel. — Young wood, slender but strong; tree of striking 
appearance; fruit marked with bands of deeper color, skin very smooth; pulp 
aromatic with suggestion of pineapple flavor. 



PACKING CITRUS FRUITS 



453 



Golden Nugget Naz'cl. — Young wood willowy and slender, tree umbra- 
geous; fruit smooth, solid, thin-skinned, rather oblong and good size, rich 
golden color ; pulp free from rag, and delicious. 

Australian Navel. — A coarser type of the Navel introduced from Australia 
in 1874 by Lewis Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, and largely propagated formerly. 
It has now been practically abandoned for the Washington Navel. It seems 
to be of more account at some points in the San Joaquin Valley than elsewhere. 

Valencia Late (Hart's Tardiif). — Medium size, oblong, pale yellow; flesh 
rich, deep yellow, sprightly and crisp; tree a strong grower, slightly thorny. 
Ripens late, and valuable for late shipping. 

Malta Blood. — Fruit small to medium, oval; flesh fine texture and flavor, 
streaked and mottled with red; few seeds. The tree is thornless and regular 
and heavy bearer. 

Ruby. — Medium size, roundish; when ripe often reddened by deep red pulp 
within; juicy and sprightly, often rather acid; tree vigorous, thornless and a 
good bearer. 

Mediterranean Szveet. — Fruit medium to large, pulp and skin of fine texture, 
very solid and few seeds; ripens late, often not until May or June. The tree 
is thornless and of dwarf habit of growth and is inclined to overbear. It was 
at one time the most widely-distributed variety in the State, next to the Wash- 
ington Navel, but has recently been largely budded over. It was introduced 
and named by T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles. 

Paper Rind St. Michael. — Fruit small, round, very firm and very juicy; 
pale, thin skin; very elegant in appearance. It ripens late and keeps well on 
the trees as late as August; tree is of dwarf habit, medium thorny, a good 
bearer, and very desirable. 

Kumquat (Citrus Japonica). — Fruit very small, oblong or olive shaped, rind 
thick, yellow, smooth; sweet-scented; very little pulp; containing many seeds; 
tree dwarf (a bush), a prolific bearer. Chiefly used for conserves. 

Dancy's Tangerine, or Kid Glove. — ^Leaves broad, fruit flat, small to medium, 
reddish; skin separating readily from the pulp; flesh juicy and aromatic. 

Satsuma (Unshiu Oonshiu). — A considerable acreage of this variety, planted 
ten years ago on dwarfing stock, has availed very little commercially. At 
present there is disposition to grow the variety on sweet orange stock because 
of its earliness, but this practice has been recently condemned by Florida 
experience, where it is held that it must be grown on the trifolicata root. Tree 
quite hardy, fruit irregular in size, but usually medium size, flattened; rind 
easily detached; fine texture, sweet and nearly seedless. 

Mandarin, Willow-Leaved. — Medium sized, flattened, deep yellow; flesh dark 
orange, skin loose; tree compact, ornamental. 

King. — Of the Mandarin class ; large, rough skinned, skin and segments 
loose, pulp high flavored, sweet, aromatic. 



STANDARD PACK FOR CITRUS FRUITS 

A standard orange box in California is 12x12x26 inches outside 
measurements with a fruit space Ilj/<xll5^x24 inches, and its 
weight is usually estimated at 72 pounds. A standard California 
lemon box is 10^ x 14 x 27 inches outside measurements, divided 
also into two compartments. Pomelos are packed in the orange 
box, while the Tangerines, Mandarins and other kid glove vari- 
eties are packed in half boxes of the orange size, two of which 
are cleated together for shipment. In rare instances they are 
packed in quarter boxes, four being cleated together. 



454 



CALIFORNIA PRUlTS: HOW TO GliOW THEAI 



A carload of packed oranges varies some in number of boxes 
in keeping with the size of the car. A 36-foot car will take 336 
boxes, the 40-foot car 384, and the 42-foot 409. In lemons the 
36-foot car will take 288 boxes, the 40-foot car 312, and the 42-foot 
car 336. When packed the boxes are placed on end two tiers 
high and six rows wide, with a space for ventilation between 
each and every box, made feasible by nailing small strips of lum- 
ber of sufficient strength crosswise of the car. 

In oranges the regular sizes are 126, 150, 176, 200, 216; small 
"off-sizes" 250, 324, 360; large "off-sizes" 64, 80, 96, 112. The 
relative value of the different sizes in the regular trade is given 
by Mr. Powell, whose excellent publication on the marketing of 
oranges is cited in the chapter on that fruit, in this way : "A 
car of Washington Navel oranges may contain boxes of all- sizes. 
A car is called a "standard car" when it contains not more than 
ten per cent of each of the following sizes: 96, 112, 250, and not 
over twenty per cent of the 126 size. The remainder of the car 
may be divided among the 150, 176, 200 and 216 sizes. If a car 
"is sold to a dealer at a fixed price per box it is usual to allow a 
discount of 25 to 50 cents per box on the excess in the 96, 112, 
126 and 250 sizes, and a discount of 50 cents per box on the 48, 
64, 80, 288, 300, 324, 360 and 420 sizes. The rule concerning the 
sizes in a standard car may vary with the season, with the sec- 
tion and with the general size of the fruit taken as a whole. 
When oranges of either the large or small sizes are scarce, they 
are at a premium, and the proportion in a car may be raised with- 
out discount. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
THE POMELO OR GRAPE FRUIT IN CALIFORNIA 

This citrus fruit achieved a very sudden interest in California 
because of the prices commanded by Florida pomeloes about fif- 
teen years ago. When this supply of eastern cities was cut ofif 
by the serious frost injuries in Florida there arose a passion for 
planting the trees in California, and a considerable acreage was 
planted, and as the tree is a very rapid grower and precocious 
in fruit-bearing, large shipments were made in 1898, but the 
the results were not satisfactory, and since that time, although 
pomeloes sometimes sell to good advantage, the demand is on 
the whole light and irregular. The local consumption of pomeloes 
in California is increasing but does not warrant much acreage. 
For these reasons early plantings have been largely grafted over 
to the orange. 

The fruit is a Shaddock (Citrus decumana). Varieties have 
been secured of smaller size and of blander flavor than the coarse, 
sour and acrid fruit which is suggested by its name. An effort 
has been made to secure the favorite varieties, and a large list 
has been planted in this State, but the fruit does not command the 
place at the East which was awarded to the Florida product. As 
a tree the pomelo most nearly resembles the orange and its culture 
is the same. As for varieties, California experience has been too 
brief and fitful to demonstrate particular value or adaptation in 
them. Among growers there is no wide agreement as to superi- 
ority from a commercial point of view. Amateurs can find many 
desirable sorts in our citrus nurseries. 

Mr. A. P. Griffith of Azusa is perhaps the most enthusiastic 
and confident of California growers that the pomelo grown in 
this State will attain wide popularity in the United States. His 
grove is now seven acres in extent, nearly all of the Nectar vari- 
ety which is of the type which he believes should be grown to win 
public favor. He concludes that the market wants a fruit not 
smaller than 80's and prefers them to stop at 64's. A fruit fiat- 
round that will cut up into two halves each of which will stand 
upright on a plate, cut side up, seems especially desirable. A 
fruit that is spherical or pear-shaped is not desired. There are 
several varieties whose similarity in type would seem to warrant 
including all under one name. These, with the addition of the seed- 
less, comprise all there is of intrinsic value among California 
pomeloes. If all other varieties not of this type were budded 

455 



456 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



over, and thus taken out of the market, Mr. Griffith believes the 
demand would increase. Of the following varieties, the first is 
propagated by Mr. Griffith and the others by Mr. R. M. Teague 
of the San Dimas Citrus Nurseries and other citrus nurserymen : 

Nectar. — A Florida seedling, grown at Duarte; flat-round, heavy; peel 
smooth and bright, pale-lemon color ; oil cells small and numerous ; flesh dense, 
firm texture, abundant juice, vinous, excellent, bitter-sweet element distinct; 
few seeds and little rag; sizes from 42 to 80 to the box. 

Imperial. — Medium to large, peel very smooth, medium thin and of fine 
texture; little rag, juice abundant, fine aromatic flavor, good keeper and shipper. 
Tree upright and heavy bearer. 

Marsh Seedless. — Medium size, 52 to 64 to the box; thin rind; almost en- 
tirely seedless ; flesh dark and rich, a late keeper and earl}^ and abundant bearer. 

Triumph. — Medium size, peel smooth, clear, thin and fine grained ; very 
juicy, heavy and good flavored; juice free from bitterness; very little rag; an 
early and prolific bearer. 

Marketing Grape Fruit. — The California problem seems to 
be not only to grow grape fruit acceptable to consumers in distant 
markets but to place the fruit upon those markets when they are not 
otherwise well supplied. Recently better results have been 
attained b}^ shipping during the Valencia season tljan earlier. 
When California growers give as much attention to meeting the 
demand as they have to the orange and the lemon, it is to be 
expected that the grape fruit will become commercially more 
satisfactory. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE LEMON AND MINOR CITRUS FRUITS 

Lemon growing is a very unique and distinctive branch of Cali- 
fornia horticulture, which in the present advancement of culture 
and preparation for the market, well illustrates the originality and 
invention which the California fruit grower has displayed in his 
undertakings. Lemon growing in California is old because it arose 
at the old missions in the second century back of us, but success- 
ful lemon growing as a great industry is new and constantly assum- 
ing new phases. For the old seedling lemons were bad, and 
though enterprising growers soon learned that fact and set about 
getting better ones, it took years to secure them and to learn how 
to grow and handle them so that the Californian could displace 
the Sicilian fruit in the markets of the United States. Nor was 
time the only thing sacrificed — hundreds of thousands of dollars 
were lost before the California grower could put upon the market 
a good lemon, fit to stay good for a sufficient length of time. Un- 
profitable plantings; expensive curing houses, which did not cure 
well ; countless experiments which yielded only loss and disappoint- 
ment — all these are wrecks upon the rock of American lemon grow- 
ing. 

Naturally Californians sought first to know how lemons were 
grown and handled abroad. At cost of great effort and outlay they 
learned practically nothing that they could do and a great deal 
that it was not necessary to do. Then they assumed a more rational 
mood — a disposition to discern what principles are involved in the 
problem, and to apply them in their own way according to con- 
ditions locally prevailing. Along this line grand success has been 
attained by a few masterful men conducting large lemon enter- 
prises or ^smaller undertakings of their own, while the mass of 
lemon planters, for one reason or another, have never reaped the 
reward they expected. On the whole, it may be said that lemon 
growing is a much harder and more exacting enterprise than orange 
growing, and for this reason many have new-topped their trees to 
oranges and thus escape difficulties which they could not overcome. 

With the aid of the protective tariff the most resolute and 
capable have attained success, and now the California lemon is 
highly esteemed upon its merits everywhere. The tariff has some- 
what reduced the effect of cheap labor in Italy and cheap water 
transportation from the Mediterranean region, and our lemons can 
sometimes compete with the foreign product not only in the west 

457 



^5g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

but even in the cities of the Atlantic seaboard. All this has been 
accomplished within two decades and it is a notable result. One 
measure of this fact may be found in the shipment of over three 
thousand five hundred carloads during the season of 1906-7. The 
California lemon has, however, not yet attained mastery of Amer- 
ican markets as the orange has, for there is a value of about four 
millions of dollars in imported lemons while imported oranges are 
only worth one-fourth as much. It is manifest that the lemon 
should be encouraged with increased protection to enable producers 
to push the issue of an American lemon for Americans to a suc- 
cessful termination. 

The best pack of California lemons has a uniformity of size, a 
finish of skin, a juiciness and keen acidity which is unrivaled in 
the world. Numerous careful tests have been made of the Cali- 
fornia lemon in Atlantic cities in comparison with the best south 
European product, and the superiority of the American fruit has 
thus been demonstrated. 

SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE LEMON 

The lemon does best in a practically frostless situation. Such 
places are found in largest area in the southern half of the coast 
regions of California, but also exist at favoring elevations in the 
interior. The moderating influence of proximity to salt water, and 
the efifect of local topography and environment, which give frost- 
free nooks or belts, are elements favoring the lemon grower. In 
such situations the lemon blooms and fruits continuously through- 
out the year. 

While the lemon requires a less extreme of low temperature 
than the orange, it also thrives with a less extreme of high tem- 
perature and less duration of it. It apparently does not require as 
much heat to develop acid, which is the charm of the lemon, as 
it does sugar, which is essential to an acceptable orange ; therefore, 
a coast situation which may not yield a sweet orange may produce 
a good lemon, although it is a fact that in the southern coast region, 
where the largest commercial production of lemons is now 
achieved, the orange also does well. Another advantage of the 
lower summer temperature is that the continuous ripening is not 
interfered with, as it is by high summer heat, which hastens ma- 
turity and brings the mass of the fruit to marketable condition 
in the winter — a season when the demand for the lemon is very 
small. This objection is, however, being measurably overcome 
by the proper storage and treatment of the fruit for sale, at a con- 
siderable interval after picking, as will be mentioned presently. 
But both the curing and storage of lemons are more easily secured 
in the more equable temperature and moister air of the coast 
region. 



PLANTING AND PRUNING LEMONS 



459 



The lemon delights in a sandy loam, and probably our best 
orchards are on such soil, but the trees thrive in other soils. There 
is a difference of opinion among growers as to what soil is to be 
especially sought for. There are profitable lemon orchards in 
southern California located upon deep clay loams, and even upon 
strong red clay soils. As with some other fruits, the choice of 
soil is, to a certain extent, governed by the stock on which the 
lemon is worked. 

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING 

The prevailing stock for the lemon is the orange seedling 
either the sweet or sour stock, under the same conditions that each 
is preferred for the orange, the sour stock resisting measurably 
the effects of ill-drainage of heavy land or flat, low places. The 
orange root thrives on a greater variety of soils than the lemon, 
and produces a healthy lemon tree where the lemon on its own 
root would fail. The growth of orange seedlings for budding has 
been described in the last chapter. If lemon seedlings are desired 
they may be grown in the same way. Plants either for permanent 
growth or for stocks for budding can be grown from cuttings, as 
explained in Chapter VIII. The budding of the lemon is prac- 
tically the same as of the orange, Avhich has been described. An 
old tree can be changed from one variety to another by the meth- 
ods described for the orange, and oranges can be worked into 
old lemon trees and good fruit secured if the lemon itself be grow- 
ing upon an orange root, which is likely to be the case with trees 
planted during the last decade. 

Planting of the lemon is the same as that of the orange. The 
distance in planting varies from twenty to twenty-five feet. Irri- 
gation of lemon and orange trees is also similar. 

PRUNING THE LEMON 

The pruning of the lemon is essentially different from that of 
the orange, because the habit of the tree is different. The lemon 
requires constant attention to bring it into good bearing form and 
keep it there; the orange, after it is well shaped, simply needs 
attention to encourage it to retain the bearing form to which it 
seems naturally disposed. The orange provides itself with sat- 
isfactory bearing wood, as a rule ; the lemon devotes itself, even 
when it is old enough to know better, to a rangy rambling wood 
growth with bearing wood upon the ends of willowy rods where 
it is swept about in the wind and burned in the sun, instead of 
nestling it neatly among the leaves as the orange does. 

The rational proceeding with the lemon is, then, to develop it 
at first into a low, stocky and strong form, such as is described in 



460 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Chapter XII for deciduous trees. This may be secured by pinch- 
ing' so as not to allow running out of long branches at first, or it 
may be secured by severe cutting back of the long growths of the 
young tree. In either case low branching will be secured. Make 
good selection from these branches to form a symmetrical tree 
and cut back the growth which comes upon them to cause it to 
branch in its turn. In this way plenty of good, strong wood is 




Lemon tree with fruit near ground but capable of under-cultivation. 



secured low down, and with short distances between the laterals. 
Strong, upright shoots (wrongly called "suckers") which break 
out at points where branches are not desired, should be rubbed 
off or cleanly cut away. Having secured about the right branch- 
ing in about the right places no strong sprouts should be allowed, 
and the tree should be encouraged to make smaller laterals, which 
will be the bearing wood. It must be admitted, however, that this 
rational plan of restricting wood growth and directing the energies 
of the tree to fruit has in some cases been pursued too far and 
the tree has resented repression by diminished thrift. The pruner 
must allow freer growth of shoot to secure better foliage. The 
pruning of the lemon as of other trees must always be pursued 
with judgment rather than by recipe. 

When the adequate growth of bearing wood within reach is 
borne in mind it appears that the pruning of the lemon involves 
many of the considerations urged in Chapter XII for deciduous 



PRUNING THE LEMON 



461 



fruits ; the method of making a strong, short trunk, the arrange- 
ment of branches, the prevention of long growths, the encourage- 
ment of low, bearing twigs, the thinning of twigs to prevent the tree 
from becoming too dense, the points to be observed in cutting back, 
not by shearing but by treating each branch according to its position 
and vigor — all these must be borne in mind by the lemon pruner. It 




Lemon tree under-pruned to bring fruit a distance from the soil. 



must also be remembered that the work must be resolutely con- 
tinued and the tree always prevented from wild growth and kept 
down to bearing on the smaller twigs, which are promoted and 
retained for that purpose. The building-down process described for 
the young orange is easily applicable to the lemon. 

Old lemon trees which have been allowed to grow away into 
a long, rangy form and to bear fruit too high for profit, can be 
brought down to good form by severe cutting back and after- 
treatment of the new shoots, keeping the smaller horizontal 
growths and cutting out cleanly the strong upright shoots, or cut- 
ting them back if more branches are needed. The time for pruning 
the lemon depends upon the end in view; if a young tree, to 
promote wood growth, prune at the opening of the growing season 
in the spring; in older trees, to repress growth and advance fruit- 
ing, prune in midsummer. 

When it is remembered that harvesting lemons is a continuous 
operation as will be stated presently, keeping the bearing wood 



462 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



of the tree within easy reach is more imperative from an economic 
point of view than with trees from which fewer pickings gather the 
crop. Adjacent engravings give suggestive views of rationally 
controlled lemon trees. Pruning is also related to escaping infec- 
tion of the fruit from the ground which will be discussed in the 
Chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines. 




Lemon tree with medium amount of under-pruning. 



PREPARATION OF LEMONS FOR MARKETING 

The lemon as taken from the tree is not in condition for 
marketing except to packers who wish to undertake the curing. 
To secure best results in quality and in keeping properties, the 
lemon should be carefully cut from the tree as soon as proper size 
is reached. To allow the fruit to hang upon the tree until lemon 
color is assumed, gives a lemon which is deficient in juice, over- 
sized, apt to develop bitterness, and prone to decay. Two and 
five-sixteenths rings are used for winter pickings and 2^ for 
spring and summer, never more than six weeks being allowed 
to elapse between pickings, and the fruit is usually picked once 
a month. By careful attention to this, desirable sizes and good- 
keeping stock are obtained. Neglect of this is the weak point of 
many of the lemon growers of California. Mr. C. C. Teague, man- 
ager of the Lirnoneira Company of Santa Paula, Ventura County, 



LEMON PACKING AND CURING 



463 



the largest lemon growing concern in California, has made close 
examination of practice among lemon growers, and concludes that 
the carelessness with which picking is done is almost crimmal. 
In grove after grove which he visited at least 50 per cent, of the 
values had been lost by allowing the fruit to hang on the tree 
too long. Not only on account of large sizes would it have to 
be discounted 50 cents per box, but the keeping quality of the 




Washing Lemons— Curing Tent in background. 



464 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



lemon which is allowed to mature on the tree is never good. Good 
results can not be obtained, even by the best methods of keeping 
lemons, unless the fruit is picked at the proper time and properly 
handled. Mr. Teague says a lemon should be handled as carefully 
as an tgg. 

If gathered before the color begins to turn properly cured 
lemons may be kept for months, and they will improve in market 
qualities, by a thinning and toughening of the skin, and by increase 
of juice contents. This curing of the fruit, as it is called, is 
accomplished in many simple ways. If the fruit is gathered and 
placed in piles under the trees, where, with low-headed trees, it 
is completely shaded by the foliage, it processes well and comes 
out beautiful in color and excellent in quality, providing it is a 
good variety. Some have trusted wholly to this open-air curing 
under the trees, merely protecting the fruit by a thin covering of 
straw, or other light, dry materials. Others let the fruit lie a 
few days under the trees, carefully shaded from the sun, and place 
it in boxes or upon trays, and keep it months in a darkened fruit- 
house, providing ventilation but guarding the fruit against draughts 
of air. Gathering the fruit while still green and packing with alter- 
nate layers of dry sand, has given excellent marketable fruit, but 
of course the handling of so much sand is too expensive nor is it 
at all necessary. 

Much attention has been given to lemon storage in southern 
California, and many curing and storage houses have been con- 
structed. Naturally there is great variation in design and method 
of operation. The essential conditions to be secured are exclusion 
of light; regulation of temperature; ample ventilation, under con- 
trol, however, so as to prevent entrance of air which is too dry or 
too hot; convenience and cheapness of handling, for the lemon is 
expensive in handling at best during the months of storage which 
is often desirable. Some of these conditions are relatively of much 
more importance in the interior than in the coast region, because 
heat and dry air reach occasionally extremes which are not ex- 
perienced near the ocean which is a great regulator of temperature 
and atmospheric moisture. For these reasons a much simpler 
system of storage is now in large use in the coast district, while 
in the interior suitable special buildings or basements are appar- 
ently necessary. Anyone entering upon lemon handling should 
certainly visit establishments now in satisfactory use and learn by 
careful observation of their suitability to his purposes. 

Near the coast, and so far toward the interior as ocean influ- 
ences extend in adequate degree, the building of special curing 
houses has been abandoned and some quite expensive structures 
have been turned to other uses. An objection to house-storage 
lies in the fact that the fruit is apt to be massed in the house and 
that which is just picked given the .same ventilation as that which 



LEMON CURING HOUSE 455 

has been in the house several months, when, as a matter of fact, 
lemons in different stages of curing require radically different 
treatment as regards ventilation. As a result of this treatment 
some of the fruit is usually wilted from receiving too much air, 
while the greater portion of it is badly decayed from receiving too 
little. 

Proper ventilation is the keynote of success in keeping lemons, 
and after extensive and expensive experience along the old lines, 
Mr. Teague of the Limoneira Company, already cited, concluded 
that lemon handlers had been on the wrong track in believing a 
low temperature first in importance. If the ventilation is right 
the temperature will take care of itself. Mr. Teague decided that 
proper conditions for keeping lemons lie just between the points 
where they wilt and where they sweat, inducing neither if possi- 
ble, for too much moisture induces decay and too little causes 
shriveling. The fragment of the stem left on the fruit by the cut- 
ter may be used as a test : if it adheres, the conditions are right 
for slow curing; if it detaches easily, the best keeping quality is 
not being secured. 

The Limoneira Company was first to equip a house on the 
open air plan. The house is 300x100 feet. The flooring is 2-inch 
planking and the roof covered with gravel-paper roofing. The 
building has no sides whatever, allowing free circulation of air. 
The fruit for storage is put into regular shipping boxes, piled in 
blocks of 560 boxes. There is a double row of these blocks on 
either side of a 20-foot space which extends to the entire length 
of the building, and which answers the double purpose of a 
work room and an air space. The boxes are so piled as to permit 
of the circulation of air around each box. Each block of fruit is 
covered by a canvas 10x10x20, made box shape by a canvas cover 
and four canvas curtains on rollers, the openings at the corners 
being closed by lacings as desirable. The ventilation is controlled 
by raising or lowering the canvas, and each block of fruit can oe 
given exactly the ventilation that it requires, irrespective of the 
other fruit in the house. By this method 50 or 100 cars of fruit 
can be handled and kept in as good condition as if there was onlv 
one. Each block being numbered, a complete record of the lemons 
from each of the six sections of the ranch is kept from the time 
it is picked until the fruit is shipped. The fruit is all washed in a 
lemon washing machine, and is piled up in the house wet, just as 
it comes from the machine. The canvas covers are not dropped 
over it, however, until it is thoroughly dry. An idea of these 
curing tents can be had from an adjacent engraving which shows 
them on both sides of a central space which is used for packing 
the fruit in the shipping boxes. 

With proper curing facilities lemons picked in November and 
December may be kept until the following July. Later pickings 



466 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



may not keep so well and may be marketed first. Of the finer 
points in lemon handling, however, there is much which must be 
learned by experience. 



VARIETIES OF LEMONS FOR CALIFORNIA 

During the earlier years of California lemon growing there 
were continuous efforts put forth to secure better lemon varieties. 
During the last decade three varieties have been accepted as satis- 
factory and nearly all others have been dropped. The three are 
Eureka, Lisbon, and Villa Franca, arranged according to present 
degree of popularity in southern California, where nearly the whole 
commercial product is now made, although some plantings have 
been undertaken farther north, chiefly in the citrus belt on the 
east side of the San Joaquin valley. 

Eureka. — A native of California, originated by C. R. Workman, at Los 
Angeles, from seed imported from Hamburg in 1872, only one seed growing, 
from which buds were put by him on orange stock. Distributed by T. A. 
Garey, of Los Angeles. Tree very free from thorns. Fruit medium size, sweet 
rind, a good keeper, few seeds; very popular, especially in coast regions. Less 
popular in the interior because of scant foliage. 

Lisbon. — Imported from Portugal ; first grown by D. M. Burnham, of 
Riverside. Fruit uniformly medium size, rather oblong, fine grain, thin sweet 
rind, strong acid; few seeds; a good keeper; tree is a strong grower, with com- 
pact foliage, prolific bearer, but starts bearing late; quite thorny, but thorns 
decrease in size as the tree grows older ; popular at interior points especially. 

Villa Franca. — Imported from Europe. Medium size, oblong, slightly pointed 
at the blossom end, rind thin, without bitterness, acid, strong, juicy, nearly 
seedless. Tree thornless, branches spreading and somewhat drooping, foliage 
abundant; withstands lower temperature than other imported varieties. 



THE LIME 

The lime {Citrus medica acida) has proved much less hardy 
than the lemon. It has been killed in situations where the orange 
and lemon have not been injured. Unless adequate protection is 
thought worth the effort, there is little use in planting the lime, 
except in a frostless situation. Such localities are found near the 
ocean in southern California, and here and there at proper ele- 
vation in the interior both north and south, still the growth of the 
lime must be counted very hazardous. There is less inducement 
to experiment with the fruit from the fact that the Pacific Coast 
markets are well supplied with Mexican limes, usually at prices 
which leave no opportunity for competitors. 

Limes are grown from seed, the variety usually coming true 
from seed. The trees are small and are frequently grown in hedge 
form. The common variety is the Mexican. The Imperial, a 
large, rather hardy variety is favorably reported by several growers. 



THE BERGAMOT 457 



THE CITRON 



This fruit (Citrus medica cedrd) is little grown in California, 
although it is quite hardy and could be produced over a large area. 
The only use for the fruit, which resembles a monstrous lemon, 
is in its candied rind, and no one has deemed it worth while to 
push competition with the imported candied citron, though very 
fine experimental lots have been produced, and the interest of the 
fruit-preserving establishments in the product recurs periodically. 
There have been collections of citron trees imported from the 
Mediterranean region by the United States Department of Agri- 
culture planted at several points in southern California. As yet 
no considerable product has been reached. There is, however, no 
cessation of interest, and experimental planting continues, with a 
prospect of satisfactory attainment ere long. Samples of the can- 
died article have been approved by experts as very satisfactory. 

ORNAMENTAL CITRUS SPECIES 

There are grown in this State for curiosity or ornament various 
minor citrus species, including the Bergamot and the dwarf orna- 
mental sorts from Asia. There are, of course, the ornamental 
species grown by florists for their fragrant bloom. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
MINOR SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS IN CALIFORNIA 

A number of interesting' fruits are now grown in this State 
which, for one reason or another, have not yet attained any great 
commercial importance, although some of them are advancing in 
popular esteem and likely to gain much higher place in the mar- 
kets. Others will probably never be grown except for home use 
and garden ornament. 

THE BANANA 

The banana has been a favorite plant for experimental culture 
for many years, and though good fruit has been grown at various 
points in the State, the culture is too hazardous to warrant large 
investment, and if this danger was not present, the abundant sup- 
plies available from the islands of the Pacific would probably 
reduce the profits to a narrow margin. The banana can be trusted 
only in protected situations and in small numbers which can be 
given special attention. With these conditions the banana may 
yield very acceptable fruit for home use and be an ornament to 
the garden. Its beauty is, however, seriously impaired by winds, 
which whip its tender leaves into shreds and give the -plant an 
unkempt appearance. 

The largest number of bananas are seen in Los Angeles and 
Santa Barbara, and one grower at an elevation near the latter place 
reports his table supplied daily throughout the year with the fruit 
of the Cavendish species, which is the most commonly grown 
sort. The Yellow Martinique or Yellow Costa Rica, the Orenoco 
the Hawaiian Lele, Hart's Choice, and a large-fruited variety 
known in Los Angeles county as the Baldwin, are also approved 
by growers. How to grow bananas in the garden, according to 
the experience of the late S. H. Gerrish, of Sacramento, is as fol- 
lows : 

By experiment I have found that the banana will live — if in a proper soil — 
without injury to the roots, at a temperature as low as sixteen degrees Fahr. ; 
the stalk will stand a temperature of twenty-five degrees without injury, and 
the leaves are not wilted until the air is chilled to thirty degrees. My method 
has been to supply the richest food for this gigantic plant and force it to its 
extreme growth. Every one has old chip dirt, ashes, boots, shoes, clothes, and 
manure, which are often a nuisance. Dig a big hole, bury this up, in the center 
of the mass place a pailful of sand, and plant the fresh bulb. This is to 
preserve the dormant plant from the wire-worms and insects, which will not 
attack the growing -plant. As the plant grows, give it an abundance of water 

468 



CHERIMOYER AND CHOCHO 



469 



and all the slops of the house. Any kind of manure, fresh or old, ashes, leaves, 
and vegetables will soon disappear and be absorbed by this gigantic king of 
plants. As the rainy season approaches, pile all the leaves and twigs of trees 
around the plants. It protects the bulbs and makes the soil rich for next season. 

THE CHERIMOYER OR PERUVIAN CUSTARD APPLE 

The oldest cherimoyer (Anona chcrimolia) is gTowing in Santa 
Barbara. The fruit was introduced about fifty years ago, and the 
parent tree has for many years produced abundant fruit in such 
perfection that the seeds have readily germinated, and the trees thus 
propagated have been in successful bearing in several Santa Bar- 
bara gardens. The leaves are oval and pointed at both ends ; 
flowers solitary, very fragrant, and having a greenish color. Good 
specimens of the fruit are three or four inches in diameter, often 
heart-shaped, grayish brown or nearly black when fully ripe. The 
flesh, in which thirty or forty brown seeds are found, is soft, sweet, 
and pleasant to the taste, being most palatable when near decay. 
Mr. I. H. Cammack, of Whittier, describes the pulp as of the 
consistency of ice cream or a custard flavored with a blending 
of pineapples and bananas. If it has a fault it is too rich. Appar- 
ently it has no particular season for ripening, yet the best speci- 
mens seem to be found in Santa Barbara in April and May. The 
cherimoyer is also found in gardens in San Diego and Los Angeles 
counties. It needs a well-protected situation. The fruit has. been 
marketed on a limited scale in Los Angeles, and larger plantations 
have been made, especially in the Cahuenga Valley, near Los An- 
geles. The plant comes true from seed and the tree bears in its 
fourth year, and should have as much room as an orange tree. 
Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange, points out the fact that much can be 
gained by selection aiid propagation from the most satisfactory 
trees, as follows : 

Cherimoyers found in the gardens of southern California are almost always 
seedlings, and generally shy bearers. There is but one named variety, so far 
as I am aware, the Golden Russet. This is very prolific and frequently attains 
large size. Specimens above one pound in weight are not uncommon. The 
quality is as good as any, but is variable owing to the season and time of 
ripening, much cold having a marked deteriorating effect. The normal shape 
is like that of the strawberry, and the variations from the normal are equally 
abundant; in fact, in this respect the cherimolia is quite extraordinary, as the 
same tree will have on it fully matured fruit from less than an inch in diameter 
up to six or eight inches. In size the tree averages about the same as the 
peach. The market is a good one, large fruit commanding $3 per dozen or 
more, while the smaller ones sell by the pound at a relatively lower price. 

THE CHOCHO OR CHAYOTA 

The chocho plant is fruiting in Santa Barbara county, for Mr. 
Kinton Stevens, of Montecito, who obtained the seed from Samoa. 
Sechium edule is the botanical name of this plant, but it is per- 



470 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



haps better known as "choco," "chocho," "chayota," and "Portu- 
guese squash." It belongs to the order cucurbitacae, and is a 
perennial vine, resembling in growth and fruit our summer squash 
or vegetable marrow. It is a very prolific bearer. Both the fruit 
and the great yam-like tuber are used as food by man and beast 
in the West Indies, where it is considered a wholesome article of 
diet. The roots often weigh as much as twenty pounds. They 
have a flavor similar to the yam, and are considered a greater deli- 
cacy than the fruit, which in a raw state resembles the chestnut 
in flavor, and under favorable conditions weighs over three pounds. 
The proper way to grow them is to plant the whole fruit, as they 
have but one seed, and they produce fruit in three months, under 
favorable conditions. 

THE GUAVA 

Two species of guava have been quite widely tried in this 
State — the strawberry guava {Psidium cattleyanuni) and the lemon 
guava {Psidium guayava). The former is the hardier, and, in fact, 
seems to be about as hardy as the orange, and it has fruited in 
widely-separated parts of the State ; the latter is quite tender, 
and is at present only grown in favorable places along our southern 
coast, and even there it is found inferior in quality and usefulness 
to the strawberry guava. 

Mr. C. P. Taft of Orange has confidence in the lemon guava 
through the selection of better varieties. It is far larger than the 
Strawberry, and of quite attractive appearance. Sometimes the 
color is almost white, sometimes quite green, and frequently of 
a bright yellow, often with a red cheek. These variations are only 
what is naturally to be expected from seedlings, and almost no 
others have yet been planted. Mr. Taft has fruited quite a num- 
ber, perhaps a hundred, and finds it to possess qualities which if 
properly selected and developed will cause it to equal the Straw- 
berry guava in hardiness and flavor and early ripening. 

The guava grows quite readily from the seed, and grows from 
cuttings under glass. In regions of generous rainfall and on reten- 
tive soil it does not require irrigation, but it must have sufficient 
moisture at command. A light loam seems best adapted to the 
shrub. 

THE FEIJOA 

Along with the guava should be mentioned the Feijoa Sellow- 
iana, a member also of the myrtle family. In habits of growth it is 
much the same as the guava and while the foliage is not so hand- 
some, being of a generally silver gray effect, the flower is very 
showy. In May it sends forth a great profusion of blossoms, 



THE LOQUAT 47]^ 

which may be called red, white and blue, unless one desires to be 
perfectly accurate, in which case the blue would have to be 
changed to purple. The petals are unusually thick and fleshy and 
are very sweet to the taste. The highly perfumed fruit, about 
one and one-half to two inches or more in length, comes in Novem- 
ber. The flavor is delicious, like the strawberry but lacking the 
acid. The seeds are very small, almost unnoticeable ; quite a con- 
trast in this respect to the guava. 

THE GRANADILLA 

The granadilla is the term applied to the edible fruit of a species 
of passion vine {Passiflora edulis) which is quite hardy, and is grow- 
ing in different parts of the State. The fruit is about the size of a 
small hen's egg, purple exterior when ripe, the thin, brittle shell 
inclosing a mass of small seeds covered with a brilliant yellow 
pulp, mildly acid, and of very agreeable flavor. Very good jelly 
has been made of the fruit. Another passion vine with large pink 
flowers is very widely distributed in California, and bears a large, 
yellowish-brown fruit with edible pulp. 

THE JUJUBE 

The jujube (sysiphus jujube), from the fruit of which the deli- 
cate paste of the confectioner is, or should be, made, was intro- 
duced by G. P. Rixford in 1876, and is fruiting regularly and freely 
in several parts of the State. The plant is easily grown from seed 
or cuttings. The orange-red berries are produced three years from 
planting, and ripen in November and December. They are edible 
fresh or dried. As yet the fruit has not been turned to commercial 
account. 

THE LOQUAT 

The loquat (Eriobotrya Japonica) is widely grown in California 
as an ornamental plant, and a small amount of fruit is profitably 
marketed each year. During the last twenty years a very marked 
improvement in loquats has been achieved by painstaking effort 
by Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange, whose experience is freely drawn 
upon in this chapter. Mr. Taft's work has demonstrated that this 
fruit is susceptible of improvement in size, flavor, appearance, in 
bearing habit of the tree, and in direction of early and late varieties, 
and in all these directions not only in the line of better fruit, but 
fruit which commands in the market several times the value of the 
common types. Upon the basis of the new varieties the season for 
the loquat is from February to June, the bulk of the crop coming 




The Victor Loquat: a California variety. 



472 



THE PERSIMMON 



473 



in April and the first half of May. The Advance Loquat was the 
first of the new varieties to attract attention. It is very prolific. 
The fruit is often as much as three inches in length, and from one 
inch to one and one-half inches in diameter; it being of a peculiar 
pear shape. The clusters frequently contain twenty specimens. 
Its color is a bright orange yellow when fully ripe, and it should 
never be picked until it is so. The flavor is distinct and very sweet. 
Many compare it to the cherry. If not bruised when handled it 
will keep easily two weeks, growing sweeter by the process, and 
will eventually shrivel up without decay, thus proving itself capable 
of being shipped long distances. Mr. Taft has named the follow- 
ing varieties : 

Blush. — Very large, much like Advance resistant to diseases. 

Advance.— Yellow, pear-shaped, from two to three inches in length, clusters 
very large, very sweet when fully ripe. 

Premier. — Salmon-colored, oval, large, but not as large as the Advance. 
sweet, but peculiar flavor. 

Victor. — ^Largest, color pink to red, probably the best for canning. 

Pineapple. — Very large, round, immense clusters; flesh white, skin yellow. 

Commercial. — Very large, pear shaped, yellow with white flesh. 



THE PERSIMMON 

The persimmon of the southern States (Diospyros Virginiana) 
was introduced into California in early days some time ago, as 
there are trees thirty to forty feet high growing on Rancho Chico. 
The widely-distributed species, however, is the Japanese (Diospyros 
Kaki), of which many varieties are now fruiting in different parts 
of the State. The tree is quite hardy, and fruits freely both along 
the coast region and in the interior. It easily takes the form of a 
low standard, and with its large, glossy leaves during the summer, 
and its immense, high-colored fruit clinging to the twigs after the 
leaves have fallen, it is a striking object in the orchard or in the 
house garden. 

Persimmons grow readily from seed, but in most cases the im- 
proved varieties must be reproduced by grafting on seedlings either 
of the Japanese or American species. The tree seems to thrive 
in any fair fruit soil, taking very kindly to close soils if well culti- 
vated. The amounts of fruit now reaching our markets are increas- 
ing and a demand is found for certain amounts at fair prices, but 
there is no object now apparent for large increase of production. 
This fruit, so highly esteemed in the Orient and so highly praised 
by travelers, has not become as popular as expected on this coast, 
nor have the great markets at the East required more than a car- 
load or two a year so far. Americans who wish persimmons at 
all seem to prefer the smaller but more piquant Virginia species. 



474 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Recently, however, the local demand has increased because of 
the large numbers of Japanese who are now upon the Pacific 
Coast and a shipping demand for the fruit from Seattle to the Ha- 
waiian Islands and other Pacific ports, has arisen. The removal 
of astringency while the fruit remains firm has been successfully 
accomplished by Mr. George C. Roeding of Fresno, following a 
Japanese method. It is simply to place the fruit in tubs, from 
which saki, or Japanese " rice beer," has been lately removed. The 
tubs are hermetically sealed, and the fruit left in them from eight 
to ten days. When it is then removed, it is found to have alto- 
gether lost the puckering power. Mr. Roeding says that he used 
eight large saki tubs, each of which would hold twenty-five gallons, 
and in those treated one thousand pounds of persimmons. 

THE PINEAPPLE 

Casual experiments with the pineapple in the open air in this 
State have been made for a number of years, the fruit being occa- 
sionally produced. Most has been accomplished by Mr. J. B. Rapp, 
of Hollywood, Los Angeles County. Mr. Rapp's place is in the 
Cahuenga Valley, and in that part of the valley which is famed 
as frostless, where even beans and tomatoes survive winter tem- 
peratures. Mr. Rapp set out his first twenty-five plants in 1891, 
and a number of his neighbors also set out groups of plants, but 
two years finished up all but his. In 1893 the first of his plants 
fruited, but they did not seem to take kindly to the situation at 
first. They grew very slowly and the first fruit only weighed half 
a pound. After setting out his own acclimated plants, they have 
done better each year, and the fruit which Mr. Rapp has sold 
recently has weighed from two to four pounds each. If the strong- 
est offsets or suckers are planted they bear inside of a year, and 
Mr, Rapp is endeavoring to have his fruit set from May to Novem- 
ber, as the fruit setting at other times in the year is usually under- 
sized on account of the slow growth during the winter and early 
spring. It seems probable that the pineapple resents the dry air 
of our summer as well as the lack of winter heat, and a lath cover- 
ing and a summer spraying may be desirable. It is very doubtful 
whether the fruit can be profitably grown in this State on a com- 
mercial scale. 

The pineapple thrives best on a fine sandy loam, but will grow 
well on many soils if well drained and cultivated. The plants can 
be set three by three or four by five feet, so as to allow cultivation 
both ways while the plants are young. Plants are secured from 
" suckers," which come from the root, from " slips," which grow on 
the stem just below the "apple," and from "crowns" or the tufts 
of leaves at the top of the fruit. Suckers are said to bear in one 
year, and slips and crowns in two years. Strong suckers are best 



POMEGRANATE AND PAWPAW 



475 



for planting, and they should be set out early in the spring as soon 
as the danger of cold weather is over. 

THE POMEGRANATE 

This fruit (Punka granatum), famed in literature and art, is 
grown in various parts of the State, and certain amounts are profit- 
ably sold. The shrub or low tree, in good soil, will reach the 
height of twenty feet. It is a hardy plant, easy of propagation 
from seed or cutting. The beauty of the tree, not taking the fruit 
into account, has caused it to be planted in many gardens. Ex- 
posed to the raw sea winds it does not bloom well nor set with 
fruit, and is best adapted to the warmer regions of the interior, 
where it is an early and abundant bearer. The variety chiefly cul- 
tivated is a bright orange color, but there is found a large variety 
of them, varying from almost pure white with a faint blush, to dark 
red. The fruit ripens in the warmer parts of the State, north and 
south, in October. 

THE STRAWBERRY TREE 

The Spanish madrono {Arhutus unedo) is now quite widely 
grown, chiefly as an ornamental shrub or tree. The growth is 
exceedingly beautiful if kept free from scale insects, the fruit rang- 
ing as it ripens through shades of yellow, orange, and deep red, 
and contrasting beautifully with the glossy evergreen foliage. The 
fruit is of pleasant flavor. 

MELON SHRUB 

This plant (Solanum Guatemalense) is a small, half-herbaceous 
shrub from the table-land of Guatemala. The fruit is yellow, 
splashed with violet, somewhat of the shape of the egg-plant, but 
is usually seedless, and is readily propagated from cuttings. There 
are thriving plants in many protected places in the State, and som-e 
fruit reaches the market, but few seem to like the flavor, which is 
something like a tomato and melon mixed. Its greatest use will 
probably be for salads. 

THE MELON TREE 

The melon pawpaw (Carica papaya) has been widely introduced 
experimentally in this State, and many situations are found unfitted 
for its growth, but satisfactory fruiting has been secured at several 
places in southern California, especially if protected the first year 
it will stand light frosts afterwards. With Mr. Cammack, at Whit- 
tier, Los Angeles County, it ripens fruit the third year from the 



476 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

seed — the fruit being pleasant to eat as one would a mushroom. 
The large fig-like leaves and the peculiar markings of the trunk 
make the tree a very striking object. 



THE PRICKLY PEAR 

The tuna, or fruit of the cactus (Opuntia vulgaris), is produced 
in nearly all parts of the State except on the mountains. It was 
one of the old mission fruits, and was enjoyed by the early mining 
population until better fruits were available. It is about as large 
as a medium-sized pear, and has a pleasant acid flavor if one suc- 
ceeds in escaping the prickles in getting at the interior of the fruit. 
The tuna is still a commercial article in a small way. Plants are 
grown readily from cuttings of the fleshy leaves. 

Quite a distinction must now be made between the foregoing 
and the smooth or spineless fruits which are superior in quality as 
well as unarmed with prickles, and therefore readily handled and 
eaten. Varieties more or less innocent in this respect were intro- 
duced from the Mediterranean region many years ago, and prop- 
agated to a limited extent. Recently Mr. Luther Burbank of Santa 
Rosa has undertaken special work with the cactus, both for fruiting 
and forage purposes, and has attained remarkable results which are 
attracting wide attention, and upon which producing enterprises are 
being undertaken. 

THE ALLIGATOR PEAR 

The avocado, or Aguacate of the Mexicans. (Persca gratissima) 
has proved hardy in several districts in the State, north and south. 
It is not likely that it will be satisfactory without high summer heat 
and freedom from heavy frosts. It is, however, one of the most 
promising of its class of fruits, as it is known to epicures, and its 
marketing at a high price reasonably assured. Mr. J. C. Harvey, 
of Los Angeles, gives this interesting account of it : 

It is a handsome evergreen tree, and, in the typical form, bears elliptical 
leaves from two and one-half to three inches in width, narrow toward the 
base, and about six inches long. In some varieties the new growth is of a 
reddish brown, ultimately becoming deep green. The fruits are pear-shaped, 
about the size of a Bartlett pear, and contain a single, rather large seed. When 
ripe, the skin, which is much thinner than that of an orange, parts easily from 
the pulp, which is of a moderately firm though buttery consistency, and forms, 
with lime juice or pepper and salt, one of the most delicious salads known to 
epicures. Indeed, the fruit is a perfect mayonnaise in itself. Few persons fail 
to like it, even at first, and in countries where it is common, it is esteemed above 
all other vegetable productions, both by natives and foreigners alike. The pulp 
is quite rich in a bland and most agreeable oil, said to be very nutritious. The 
tree attains a height of from twenty-five to thirty-five feet, and forms a hand- 
some object when liberally cultivated. The tree is a gross feeder. Good- 
sized trees carry a large crop, which, after attaining a certain size, can be picked 
at intervals of a week or two extending over a period of two or three months, 



THE WHITE SAPOTA 



477 



the fruits in each instance ripening in a week or ten days after gathering; 
and a very remarkable fact is that the quality or flavor of the last picking 
seems just the same as the first. 

The alligator pear must be considered as one of the most prom- 
ising fruits included in this chapter; it may prove the most profit- 
able of the group. Efforts are in progress in California and else- 
where for improved varieties by selection and propagation by 
budding with the ordinary shield-bud and a waxed cloth binding, 
is easily done. The literature of the alligator pear is increasing and 
should be consulted.* Of progress in its growth thus far in south- 
ern California Mr. Taft writes : 

It is hardly probable that here in California we can ever produce fruit 
quite equal in size to the largest from the tropics, but there are smaller and 
hardier varieties which are no whit inferior but rather better in flavor and 
richness which have been found to do well. These are from local or Mexican 
seeds whose ancestors for many generations have grown in a climate much 
like our own. In southern California there are perhaps a hundred trees old 
enough to bear. Of these about ten produce abundant and regular crops. 
Fortunately they are so located as to indicate that there is a considerable area 
adapted to Avocado. Of these first class trees one or two grow at Hollywood, 
two or three in Los Angeles, one at Monrovia, one at Santa Ana, and I have 
two or three at Orange. One of those at Hollywood is probably the most 
prolific. 

It is from these trees that we should establish our groves. Probably the 
safest plan is to plant in orchard seedling trees, direct from the can or pot in 
which they are started, for many have found the Avocado rather cranky about 
transplanting. When balled, though, it moves readily enough. Trees which 
do not fruit satisfactorily can be budded over as soon as this fact is shown. 

As there is an uncommonly great variation in the time of blooming and 
also in the period required for the fruit of different types of frees to come 
to maturity, an orchard may be obtained by selection which will bear continu- 
ously. This is of course very desirable to the consumer and immaterial to the 
market grower, as there is plenty of demand at all times. 

The tree at Monrovia was grown by W. Chappelow and has 
been named for him by W. A. Taylor of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture who imported the seed from Mexico. 

THE WHITE SAPOTA 

There are two old trees in Santa Barbara, one believed to have 
survived from the mission planting in the early part of the last 
century, the other half as old, of the white sapota (Casimiroa edulis). 
Dr. Franceschi commends the tree for every garden. Mr. Harvey 
of Los Angeles describes the sapota as growing with him from seed 
from Vera Cruz as follows : 

This tree endures slight frosts unharmed. It is indigenous in northwest Mex- 
ico and is remarkable among the Aurantiacca, producing green colored flowers, 
and superficially bears little resemblance to an otherwise well-marked order of 
plants. The fruits are the size of apples, and are esteemed in that portion of 

* The Avocado, by G. N. Collins. Bulletin 77, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. 
Dept. of Agr., 1907. Consult also Yearbooks of the U. S. Dept. of Agr. for 1905 and 
1906. 



473 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Mexico where it is common; according to some botanical authorities it is not 
considered altogether wholesome, possessing narcotic properties. The pulp is 
described as possessing a delicious, melting, peach-like taste. 

Mr. Taft reports the sapota as bearing well with him. The tree 
is an exceedingly rapid grower, much after the habit of the walnut, 
but evergreen. In August and September the peach-like fruit, 
greenish yellow, with large seeds shaped like those of an orange, 
matures well and is excellent, this being the normal season for 
ripening. At other times fruit is often found, but is apt to be 
worthless and even dangerous. As it will not ripen well off the 
trees and must be quite soft when eaten, it will never be of much 
market value. 

THE TREE TOMATO 

This plant {Cyphomandra betacea) was brought to general notice 
by Mr. Cammack of Whittier. It is a native of Central America 
and is of shrubby habit, growing five or six feet high, with large, 
shining leaves, often a foot long. The flowers are fragrant, of a 
pale flesh color, with yellow stamens, and are followed by fruit the 
shape and size of a duck's egg, at first of a purple tint, but gradually 
assuming a warm, reddish color as it ripens. When ripe the fruit 
may be used raw as a tomato is. If the skin is removed and the fruit 
stewed with sugar, it has a slight sub-acid flavor which is very 
refreshing. It makes a fine jelly. The plants bear the second year 
from the seed and the fruit ripens continuously for several months. 
The seeds should be started just as are those of the common tomato, 
and the plants set out eight or ten feet apart. 

THE KAI APPLE 

This name is applied to the fruit of Aberia Caffra, a native of 
Natal and Kaffaria, a tall shrub, yielding an edible fruit of a golden 
yellow color, about an inch in diameter. It is commended as a 
hedge plant, as it is densely clothed with strong dry spines. The 
leaves are small and of a rich green hue. The fruit, which is pro- 
duced freely in the warmer parts of the State, is chiefly used for 
making preserves. 

OTHER FRUITS 

The foregoing enumeration does not .include all the exotic fruits 
which have found a place on California soil. There are many more, 
some of which are demonstrating their fitness to add to the graces 
or the gains of our horticultural life. The caricas, carissas, eugenias, 
hovenia, etc., are all gaining places in California gardens. Even the 
more strictly tropical mango, the monstera, sapodilla and the like 
are claiming the attention of amateurs. 



PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
BERRIES AND CURRENTS IN CALIFORNIA 

In suitable soils and situations, and with proper care and cultiva- 
tion, the sjnall fruits sustain the general reputation of California 
by the size and quality of the product, and by the long-continued 
and abundant fruiting of the plants. Probably nowhere else in the 
world do small fruits better repay generous treatment than in this 
State, and probably nowhere do they suffer more from neglect. 
There are parts of the State, of course, where some small fruits, left 
to their own resources, thrive and bear abundantly, but, speaking of 
the State as a whole, the price of success is intelligent devotion on 
the part of the grower. 

There are localities in California which favor almost continuous 
growth and fruiting of some of the small fruits, and it is no fiction 
to say that in such a place one may have raspberries and straw- 
berries upon his table every month of the year. Such situations are 
the thermal belts, which are practically frostless, and, by securing 
favoring moisture conditions in the soil and proper varieties of the 
fruits, the existing temperature conditions will produce the results 
indicated. Though this be the case, the profitable growth of small 
fruits is not, of course, restricted to such situations, but the largest 
commercial enterprises are carried on in places where the summer- 
crop rule prevails, but the bearing season is much larger than in the 
eastern States. 

Small fruits for family use may be grown on all fertile soils, and 
therefore they should be produced on every farm. Growing for 
market on a large scale involves considerations of suitability of soil 
and climate, ease of cultivation, water supply, and facilities for 
transportation, which will probably occur to any one who gives the 
matter the thought and personal observation of existing small fruit 
farms, which such an important commercial venture should 
command. 

It is often claimed that soil for small ^fruits should be deep and 
rich of the types generally called garden soils. There is an advan- 
tage in this because of amount of plant food and retention of moist- 
ure when well cultivated, but at the same time shallow soils even 
when overlying hardpan, which may not suit deep rooting trees or 

479 



480 



California fruits: how to grow them 



garden roots, can be profitably used for small fruits if water and 
fertilizers are intelligently used. This will be stated more fully in 
the discussion of the strawberry, but the general fact is pertinent 
to the growth of other small fruits also. 

Preparation of soil for small fruits should be most thorough and 
careful. Even more generous work than that commanded in Chap- 
ter X for trees and vines should be done. It is the more necessary 
to work deeply because subsequent culture of small fruits must be 
shallow. 

THE BLACKBERRY 

The blackberry is a great favorite in California markets. It 
thrives in all parts of the State, and the plant is best suited of all 
small fruits to yield generously without irrigation, though it relishes 
sufficient moisture and repays it with fruit. There is great dififer- 
ence in practice as to supplying water artificially. The growth of 
cane, and the size and appearance of the fruit, will show the observ- 
ing grower what should be the practice in his situation, and the gen- 
eral suggestions as to irrigation in Chapter XV are applicable. There 
are regions in which blackberries are irrigated weekly throughout 
the summer, and others in which the berries are gathered from June 
to November without irrigation. Of course, with such wide local 
variations there can be no general rule for practice. Let the grower 
simply bear in mind that if he does not get good, plump, and glisten- 
ing fruit and good strong growth of new canes at the same time, he 
should give irrigation. The requirements of the plant during the 
fruiting season are great, and they must be met. Many failures are 
due to lack of irrigation when needed. 

Propagation, — Blackberry plants are secured by digging up the 
shoots from old stools, securing therewith a bunch of fibrous roots 
with a portion of the main root. To propagate on a large scale dig 
up the roots entirely, and, cutting them up with pruning shears into 
pieces about two inches long, plant them in a well-prepared bed in 
the garden or nursery. Place the root cuttings about two inches 
apart and cover about three inches deep with well-pulverized soil, 
the depth being regulated of course, according to the nature of the 
soil, deeper in light than heavy soils. A light mulch will assist in 
retaining moisture. The time for this work is at the dormant period 
of the plant. One summer's growth gives good plants for setting 
out. 

Planting out Blackberries. — Blackberries should be planted in 
rov/s far enough apart to admit of the use of the horse and culti- 
vator. As the constant tendency of the plant is to extend itself in 
the growth of new canes, the rows should not be less than six to 
eight feet apart, and the plants about three feet apart in the row. 



GROWING BLACKBERRIES 



481 



The plants soon occupy the full space in the row, and cultivation is 
only possible between the rows. Some growers plant blackberries 
as they do grapevines, seven or eight feet apart both ways, and then 
cultivate with the horse both ways. Planting in rows is better. 
The number of plants to fill an acre at different distances can be 
calculated as described in Chapter XXVI for grapevines. 

D. Edson Smith, of Orange County, who had much experience 
with small fruits, described his method of laying out and planting 
on a large scale, with a view to irrigation, as follows : 

Plow deeply and harrow thoroughly several times before setting out. 
Lastly, open a trench with your plow where the row is to be, twenty inches 
deep ; go along with a basket of plants, a four- foot lath and a shovel, and set 
a plant in this trench every four feet and fill the dirt around it with the shovel. 
If this trench is too deep in places for the length of the plant root, fill in with 
a little dirt; if not quite deep enough in places, scoop out a shovelful. Aim, in 
preparing the ground with plow and smoother, to leave it dishing each way 
toward the row of young plants, so that irrigating water turned in at the 
upper end will run along the row of plants as in a trough. Aim to have the 
ground around the set plants a few inches below the general level of the land. 
After the plants are all set in a row, go along with a rake if there are but a 
few plants, or with a horse-hoe if there are many, and fill in the trench between 
the plants. It is a pleasure to set out plants in this way, and such deep, rich 
well-stirred soil delights the plant roots, so that they grow rapidly in every 
direction, and the plants throw up their heads in a manner entirely satisfac- 
tory to all concerned. If the ground is dry, or there is no rain soon after 
setting out the plants, irrigating water should be turned down the row or at 
least a quart or two of water poured around each plant; then, before the soil 
hardens, stir it well with cultivator and hoe. All future care resolves itself 
into frequent waterings and frequent stirrings of the soil. Allow no weeds to 
appear, and keep three inches of surface soil well loosened with the horse and 
hoes. These small fruits require frequent waterings, especially when forming 
fruit and during the fruiting season. 

Cultivation. — Thorough cultivation of the surface soil is essen- 
tial for retention of moisture. After the plants attain size, culti- 
vation should be secured with as shallow-cutting tools as possible 
so as to prevent injury to the roots, which not only weakens the 
plant, but increases the growth of suckers between the rows. A 
horse-hoe with a long knife running horizontally, or with duck-foot 
teeth, well sharpened, answers well in keeping the ground clear of 
weeds and suckers, and the surface loose. Due regard must, how- 
ever, be paid to securing sufificient depth in this surface layer to 
prevent the soil beneath baking hard and drying out, as discussed in 
the chapter on cultivation. 

Frequency of cultivation depends upon irrigation, for the cul- 
tivator must always follow the application of water. The spaces in 
the row which can not be reached with the cultivator must be kept 
clean from weeds, and free from baking, by the use of the hoe. 
It is advisable that the cultivation be the cleanest possible, for 
moisture exhaustion by weeds can not be afiforded. 



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The Mammoth Blackberry. 



482 



PRUNING BLACKBERRIES 



483 



Pruning and Training. — There is a little difference in the way 
of training blackberries practiced in this State. Of course this does 
not include the " let alone " system, which is not followed by any 
good grower. The difference lies mainly in the use or disuse 
of artificial supports for the canes — the prevailing practice being 
to dispense with them. In either case the pruning of the canes is 
similar in kind but different in degree, for if no supports are used, 
the canes are headed lower. 

At planting out, cut back the cane to near the surface of the 
ground and mark the plant with a small stake. At first the top 
growth should not be checked, but when new canes grow out 
strongly they should be pinched at the tip to force out lateral 
branches for fruiting the next year. Those who intend to tie 
canes to a stake or trellis let them attain a height of five or six 
feet before pinching off the terminal bud; those who intend to 
teach the cane to stand alone pinch when it is from two to four 
feet high. All agree to pinch off the ends of the lateral branches 
at about twelve inches from the main stem. This pinching of 
blackberry canes may be done by the watchful grower of a few 
plants, with the thumb and finger, but thrifty blackberry plants 
are such rapid cane growers that in large plantations cutting back 
is often done with a sickle or corn hook or sharp butcher-knife, 
several times in the course of the summer. It is also advisable to 
thin out the suckers with the hoe while cutting out weeds, leaving 
only about as many is it is desired to have for fruit the next season. 
This method gives stout canes, with plenty of short side branches, 
well supplied with buds, which will send out fruiting shoots the 
following spring. If supports are used, the four to six canes which 
are left to each stool are gathered within a loosely-drawn bale rope' 
and tied to the stake ; or if a trellis is used, the branches are 
brought up to the wire or slat so that the distance is about evenly 
divided between the shoots. 

Though these systematic methods of summer pruning are prac- 
ticed and advocated by the most careful growers, it should be 
stated that there are large plantations which are conducted upon a 
more simple system. The pruning consists in cutting out old 
canes in the winter, and the only summer pruning is slashing off 
these canes which interfere with cultivation. The canes are some- 
times held up by tying bunches of them together with ropes. Of 
course this system costs less than the more careful one which has 
been described, and yields profit enough to induce adherence to it. 
No doubt quite as great weight of berries could be had from a 
smaller area by a better system of growing. 

After the leaves fall, the canes which have borne fruit during 
the summer are all cut off even with the surface of the ground 
with long-handled pruning shears or with a short hooked knife with 
a long handle, and all debris removed from the rows. 



484 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Application of Manure. — The blackberry loves very rich ground, 
and plenty of well-rotted stable manure or compost, as described 
in Chapter XIV, should be applied. It is a good plan to apply in 
a thick covering all over the ground and between the canes as 
soon as the patch is cleaned up in the fall. The early rains carry 
down the soluble parts of the manure, and later in the season the 
whole is plowed in between the rows, leaving a foot or more next 
the plants to be carefully forked in, as the digging fork does not 
cut the roots like the spade. 

Mulching. — The mulch, to keep the ground moist and to obviate 
summer cultivation, is very satisfactory where it is thoroughly 
done. Apply coarse manure or partially-rotted straw and the like, 
after the last spring cultivation, and use the hoe to keep down 
weeds and suckers which come up between the rows. Some grow- 
ers use mulch close to the canes, cultivating the remainder of the 
ground between the rows. 

Bearing Age and Longevity.- — If blackberry plants are well 
treated the first year after planting out, there will be considerable 
fruit the following summer. How long the plants will bear satis- 
factorily depends, also, on situation and treatment. Sometimes the 
plants fail early ; even with good, generous treatment in good soil, 
the old stool becomes weak, the shoots are thin, and the fruit 
small. Some count about eight years as the profitable age of the 
plant, and then cut out the plants and give the land a change. Of 
course berry growers prepare for this by frequently making new 
plantations. 

Varieties of the Blackberry. — Comparatively few kinds are 
largely grown. The Wilson Junior, Lawton, and Kittatinny were 
formerly the prevailing kinds, ripening in the order named. The 
Erie is favored by some as a middle season variety. The Early 
Harvest has been favorably reported by a number of growers. 
These have, however, been largely superseded by a renamed vari- 
ety, Crandall's Early, which is the earliest of the improved vari- 
eties, and has a very long fruiting season. The fruit was named 
after Dr. J. R. Crandall, of Auburn, who first fruited the variety 
from plants given him by a stranger hailing from Texas, and the 
proper name of the variety is probably Texas Early. It is a strong, 
vigorous, hardy plant, very productive, of firm, handsome berries ; 
resembles Lawton in canes, leaves, and flavor of fruit; not given to 
sprouting from running roots. 

Another variety which has advanced in favor is the Oregon 
Evergreen, introduced from Oregon but not native nor originated 
in that State. The late John Rock described it as follows: "Origin 
unknown ; beautiful ; cut-leaved foliage, which it retains during 



BLACKBERRY-RASPBERRY HYBRIDS 485 

the winter; berries large, black, sweet, rich, and delicious. It con 
tinues to ripen from July to November, which makes it one of the 
best berries for family use." It loses size and quality notably 
on scant moisture. 

Some effort has been made to secure improved varieties of our 
native blackberry, and a most striking result has been secured by 
Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, by crossing the wild berry with 
Crandall's Early, producing a fruit so large that it has been named 
" Mammoth " by its originator. The canes of the Mammoth are 
very peculiar, being very large and thickly covered with small, 
short spines. The canes start early in March, grow thick and 
stout until about five feet high. They then take on a running 
habit and grow from twenty-five to thirty feet in a season. Late 
in the fall the tips or stolons seek the ground and take root. The 
Mammoth is not an evergreen like its Texas parent, although it 
does not entirely lose its leaves in winter. It begins to grow and 
flower very early in spring and ripens its fruit the last of May, 
some weeks earlier than the Lawton. The fruit is more acid than 
the Lawton, but, when perfectly ripe, is sweet and of superior 
flavor. When cooked or canned the flavor is identical with the 
wild berry of California. This variety is often wrongly called 
" Black Loganberry." 

The Himalaya is a blackberry of wonderful growth and pro- 
lificness, highly praised by amateurs but not yet fully made out 
from a commercial point of view. It is magnificent on a garden 
fence or trellis. 

The Dewberry. — The improved varieties of the dewberry, or 
trailing blackberry, are now quite widely known and highly praised. 
Some growers use trellises ; others train the vines along rows on 
the ground surface. The following is the method of Mr. A. M. 
Munger, of Fresno, and includes irrigation arrangements : 

For planting the Lucretia dewberry, prepare the ground by plowing deep 
and cultivating until the dirt is thoroughly pulverized. Set the plants about 
three inches deep and four feet apart, in rows, leaving a space of six feet 
between the rows. Plant between February 15th and March 15th. Irrigate as 
often as once a month, always thoroughly cultivating after each irrigation. By 
so doing a sufficient growth is secured to produce a good crop the second year. 
Immediately after the first rainfall, generally in October, the vines should be 
pruned by cutting back within about sixteen inches of the base of the vine. 

In February of the second year, plow between the rows with a small one- 
horse plow, turning the furrows toward the vines, but using a shield so as not 
to cover them. Follow immediately with a hoe, drawing the dirt up under 
the vines and forming a ridge. This ridge should be high enough to keep the 
vines up out of the water when irrigating. After this ridge is formed, water 
should be run quite often, as the dewberry requires a great deal of water to 
mature properly. The vines should be irrigated as often as three times at 
least during the spring. The fruit begins to ripen in Fresno about May 25th, 
and continues about one month. The dewberry roots readily from -the tips 
without covering if the soil is loose and moist. If many plants are desired 
it is advisable to cover slightly, and the tips will root as soon as the soil is 
moistened by the fall rains. 



486 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The dewberry which has recently been most largely planted in 
central and southern California is known as the Gardena because 
of the prolificness and profitability of a patch grown by W. M. 
Gray, of Gardena, Los Angeles county. Its qualities are vigorous 
growth, hardiness, regular and profuse yield of large, early berries. 

Pruning and Training Trailing Berries. — With reference to the 
handling of trailing blackberries and the blackberry-raspberry hy- 
brids which are continually becoming more popular, it may be said 
that there is no one best way. There are several good ways, ac- 
cording to the desires and convenience of the growers, and this 
is the reason why there is an apparent conflict in which all con- 
testants may be right, each from his own point of view. The vari- 
eties are sufficiently alike to be discussed together. What seem 
to us the essentials in pruning them are these. 

First, they all bear on canes which grow the previous year, and 
the fruit comes on laterals which break from them. In this mild 
climate there is continuous break of laterals which may cover 
quite a long period and the same wood may seem to be bearing 
twice. This second bearing is of so little account that the general 
rule to remove old wood after its main fruiting is a good one. 

Second, the wood which grows this year will therefore bear 
next year, and it will send out bearing laterals sufficiently with a 
number of treatments. The new cane may be pinched at any time 
during growth and it will then send wood laterals (not fruit later- 
als) at once and each of these laterals will have the same character 
that the main shoot would have had if it had not been pinched : 
that is, it will send out fruiting laterals at the same date the fol- 
lowing season. 

Third, it does not matter whether you make the new growth 
bunchy by laterals following pinching or whether you let it run 
out and cut off part of it at the end of the growing season or 
whether you shorten it in and at the same time cut away closely 
all the laterals which it may have made on its own account when 
it was running out. In all cases there will be dormant buds enough 
to give fruiting shoots on whatever part of the cane you reserve. 

Fourth, the way you prune, then, depends upon serving your 
own convenience in the training of these shoots up to a post, along 
on a wire or along on a ridge on the ground — whatever suits 
you best to keep the fruit out of the dirt, and to promote such 
cultivation as is desirable, etc., will be accepted by the plant as not 
interfering with its starting fruiting shoots from whatever dor- 
mant buds you have allowed it to retain on the wood which it 
matured the previous season. 



CRANBERRY AND CURRANT 



487 



Fifth, there is in addition the appHcation of the principle that 
good large fruit is the product of a plant which is not carrying too 
much bearing wood ; that is, is not endeavoring to perfect too much 
fruit at the same time. For this reason, as well as for convenience, 
it is desirable not to allow a plant to retain all the cane it grows, 
but to shorten it or to remove the laterals or part of them or to 
shorten the laterals or in any other way to require the plant to 
direct its energy to the better development of fewer fruits. 

Sixth, growers are, of course, influenced by different consider- 
ations. Amateur growers delighting in running vines on fences 
or trellises would not prune as would a commercial grower, who 
can not have canes running all over his fields. The amateur can 
pinch a main shoot and send the laterals up the arms of a fan- 
shaped trellis if he likes and make an object of rare garden beauty, 
and he can reduce the excess of bearing wood by cutting away the 
parts of the laterals which run beyond his arms or extra ones be 
yond those he can carry on his trellis. From the point of view oi 
the plant, he does the same thing that the commercial grower 
does when he comes along with his scythe or sickle and cuts away 
indiscriminately all the growth which goes beyond the space where 
it is convenient for him to have the fruit. 

Seventh, do not be too particular about exact methods to imi- 
tate ; try rather to discern principles which may be served by 
many different methods. 



THE CRANBERRY 

Though attention has been given to experiments with the 
growth of the Cranberry in California for many years, it has not 
been demonstrated that the culture is successful or profitable. Cran- 
berries have been produced, and the fruit shown at fairs, but 
beyond this nothing has yet been accomplished. It would seem 
to be a fair conclusion that even in the most moist regions our sum- 
mer air is too dry to suit the plant. 

THE CURRANT 

The Currant reaches perfection in size and quality in parts of 
California adapted to its growth, but its area is comparatively 
small. The plant does not thrive in the dry, heated air of the inte- 
rior either at the north or south. It does well near the coast, 
especially in the upper half of the State, and is grown for market 
chiefly, on lands adjacent to the bay of San Francisco. The com- 
paratively cool and moist air of the ocean favors it, but even here 
the sunburn, which is the bane of its existence in the interior val- 



iOQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

leys, occasionally injures the fruit. Away from the coast, cur- 
rants are grown to a limited extent along the Sacramento and San 
Joaquin Rivers, near their confluence, but not in the hot valleys 
whence they flow. On the foot-hills, too, where the plant has a 
northerly slope, or other cooling influence, and sufficiently moist 
soil, it will do moderately well. It is quite possible that the cur- 
rant may be satisfactorily grown for home use, or for local market 
in parts of the State where at present one does not find it, pro- 
viding the moderating effect of elevation and northerly exposure, 
coupled with the shade of trees, be secured, but even then the 
hot north wind of the early summer may often injure the fruit. 
So far as the metropolitan market is concerned, it does not matter 
that the currant area is limited, for existing plantations produce 
all, and sometimes more, than can be profitably disposed of at 
present. It is possible, however, that the future may show a 
larger demand, for the pure food laws are likely to prevent the 
further selling of apple jelly with a currant color and flavor under 
the name of currant jelly. 

Propagation. — The currant is readily grown from cuttings. As 
soon as the bush drops its leaves, and the ground is in condition, 
as to moisture, secure the cuttings a foot in length from straight 
wood of the last growth, and place them in nursery or in permanent 
place, in good sandy or garden loam, deeply spaded and well 
broken up. Set the cutting firmly in the earth, six or seven inches 
deep. If they are to be trained as small trees, every bud below 
where the lowest limb is to start should be cut out — even to the 
end of the cutting underground — otherwise they will be contin- 
ually throwing up suckers. If they are to grow as bushes, the 
natural and more productive form of the currant, set them as they 
are taken from the parent bush. 

Planting and Care. — Currants are usually grown in rows about 
five or six feet apart, the plants standing two and a half or three 
feet apart in the rows. Most of the currant plantations are between 
orchard rows, the partial shade of the trees being considered desir- 
able. It is claimed that currants do best when interplanted with 
cherry, apricot, apple, and pear, not so well when associated with 
plum and peach, and the almond is least desirable — possibly be- 
cause the almond is often given less cultivation than the pulpy 
fruits or is grown on lighter, drier soils. The cultivation is such 
as is usually given to the orchard, except that in heavy soil the 
plow is not allowed to come near the cuttings the first season for 
fear of tearing them from their rooting. After the first year the 
plow is used in the winter and the cultivator in summer. 

Currants will repay generous applications of well-rotted manure, 
and relish sufficient moisture in the soil. Where this can not be 



THE GOOSEBERRY 



489 



had from rainfall, and retained by cultivation and mulching, irri- 
gation must be resorted to. 

Pruning. — If the currant is to be grown in tree form, the 
branches from the upper buds of the cutting should be shortened in 
at the end of the first summer, and branches growing horizontally 
should be removed. The weaker shoots in the head are thinned 
out, but not so much as to leave the top too open. If the plant 
is to grow as a bush, the only winter pruning will consist in remov- 
ing dead wood, and thinning the new shoots as may seem desir- 
able. Summer pinching of the new growth is desirable, as it causes 
the fruit to set closely and tends to a thick growth of foliage also, 
and this is necessary, for the bark is liable to sunburn, and the 
best fruit is that which is well sheltered by the leaves. Another 
advantage of the bush form is the less likelihood of killing by 
borers, which is imminent when the growth depends upon a single 
stem. 

Bearing, — The currant bears a quantity of excellent fruit the 
second year from the cutting, and reaches its fullest product about 
the fifth to the eighth year, when the yield in the Haywards region 
is said to range from one and a half to three tons to the acre. 

Varieties, — The Cherry currant is the prevailing variety, al- 
though the old sorts, the Red and White Dutch, the Red and White 
Grape, etc., are grown in some localities, and Fay's Prolific is 
approved by some growers. Pomona is one of the best of the 
newer red varieties and the old Fertile de Palluau is reported as 
doing better than others in hot, interior situations. Black cur- 
rants are but little grown, the market demand for them being very 
light. 

THE GOOSEBERRY 

The Gooseberry is another fruit with somewhat circumscribed 
area in this State. In localities which favor it, the fruit is often 
found very profitable, but the demand does not warrant any great 
increase of product. Though the gooseberry thrives in some situa- 
tions which do not suit the currant, they may both be described 
as averse to the hot and dry parts of the State. Still, for home 
use or local sale one can grow certain varieties of gooseberries suc- 
cessfully, by protecting them from too great exposure to the sun, 
and by keeping the soil sufficiently rich and moist. The choice of 
varieties is of the greatest importance, as will be mentioned pres- 
ently. At present the chief supplies of the gooseberry, as of the 
currant, are produced in the country adjacent to San Francisco 
Bay, though thriving and profitable plantations are found elsewhere 
near the coast, here and there in the interior, and at considerable 
elevations on the slope of the Sierra Nevada. 



490 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Propagation, Pruning, etc. — The gooseberry is grown from cut- 
tings, very much as already described for the currant. The com- 
mon and the best method is to start the cuttings early in the win- 
ter, though some have succeeded with cuttings taken in the spring 
just as the new growth is starting out. Disbudding the lower part 
of the cutting if it is desired to train in tree form is also practiced 
with the gooseberry, but a smaller percentage of cuttings is found 
to grow after disbudding. 

Gooseberries are planted out and cultivated as already described 
for currants, and the requirements of the plant in soil, moisture, 
and manuring are much the same. 

If the gooseberry is to be grown in tree form, constant attention 
to removal of suckers is necessary ; if in bush form, it will only be 
necessary to remove too old wood and thin out' the new shoots. 
Suckers should be removed clean from the stem, so as to eradicate 
the latent buds, and pulling off with a gloved hand, when the suck- 
ers become woody enough to withstand breaking, is advised. As 
with the currant, the borer is a constant menace to the life of a 
gooseberry plant confined to a single stem. 

Diseases and Pests. — The gooseberry is subject to insect depre- 
dation both in wood and fruit and leaf. The prevailing trouble, 
however, and that which causes the failure of so many foreign 
kinds, is the mildew. To escape this nothing is usually done ex- 
cept to select varieties not subject to the disease, but susceptible 
varieties can be protected by spraying just as the leaves are open- 
ing and once a month afterwards with potassium sulphide half an 
ounce to the gallon of water. This does not stain nor poison the 
fruit. The cooler and moister the air the less the mildew. 

Varieties of the Gooseberry. — The American varieties, Down- 
ing and Houghton's Seedling, chiefly the latter, constituted for a 
long time the main varieties marketed in San Francisco. Early ex- 
periments with collections of English varieties showed that most 
of them were failures because of mildew; still a few of the green 
and white sorts, notably the Whitesmith, have succeeded. The 
proportion of large berries now being^ marketed is much greater 
than formerly, and the superior price warrants especial effort to 
produce them. 

A large English variety, which was brought to California many 
years ago by the late John W. Dwindle, is now the most widely 
distributed large kind. Its true name was lost and it has been prop 
agated under various names, viz.. Dwindle, Kelsey, New French; 
but the name Berkeley, adopted by W. P. Hammon, in his wide 
distribution of it in 1884, now prevails. It is large and handsome, 
very prolific, ripens early, and is usually free from mildew. 

The Champion, an Oregon seedling grown by Seth Lewelling, 
is medium sized, very smooth, and thick fleshed, the seeds being 



THE RASPBERRY 49j^ 

few and small. They are entirely free from mildew, and are clean, 
bright, and beautiful. The Columbus, a New York variety, is 
large and of good quality and resists mildew well. 

THE MULBERRY 

Nearly all varieties of the mulberry have been introduced in 
California and grown rapidly and thriftily. Most attention has 
been paid to those varieties most suitable for feeding silk-worms, 
but the fruiting varieties are also grown here, though the fruit 
has assumed no commercial importance. The mulberry is grown 
readily from cuttings. The fruiting varieties thus far chiefly dis- 
tributed are the Downing Everbearing, the Persian, the New 
American, the Russian, and the Black Mulberry of Spain. All 
these bear large and desirable fruit. The last named, introduced 
by Felix Gillett, of Nevada City, is grown quite widely. The mul- 
berry has a long season ; the Persian ripens in Tulare the last of 
May and continuously thereafter until October. 

THE RASPBERRY 

The raspberry is another of the great small fruits of California. 
It thrives over a great area of the State ; in fact, there are few situ- 
ations in which it cannot be grown with at least a measure of suc- 
cess if proper attention is given to retention of moisture in the 
surface soil, and to giving the plants partial shade in the heated 
valleys, and the cooler exposures in the foot-hills. The raspberry, 
skillfully pruned and generously fed and cared for, is almost a con- 
stant bearer, as has already been intimated. It is a continual de- 
light in the home garden, and always brings' a high average rate 
in local and metropolitan markets. 

The culture of the raspberry is in the main like that of the black- 
berry, as already described. The red varieties, which are the kinds 
almost exclusively grown in this State, are propagated by suckers 
and root cuttings like the blackberry, but the " black caps " are 
propagated by layering the cane tips during the growing season, 
and this method is also necessary with the Loganberry and other 
blackberry-raspberry hybrids. Bending down a cane with its 
branches and covering lightly with soil and with a light mulch to 
retain moisture, will result in free rooting of the buried parts, and 
one can sometimes secure a dozen plants by the layering of a single 
cane with it laterals. 

The pruning of the raspberry is also by the renewal system, as 
advised for the blackberry. The topping off of new canes, when 
they reach about three feet in height, the subsequent pinching of 
the laterals which are thus forced out, the resolute thinning out 
of sprouts so that but three or four strong canes are allowed from 



492 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

one root, the faithful repression of all weeds, the maintenance of a 
loose surface layer of the soil by very shallow cultivation, the free 
application of manure and of water unless a continually moist con- 
dition near the surface can be secured by cultivation and mulching, 
— all these are among the essentials of cultivation which will se- 
cure abundant fruit and a long bearing season. However, as has 
already been stated with regard to blackberries, there are large 
plantations which pursue a less careful system of cultivation es- 
pecially in the moderate heat and drouth of the coast district. 

Continuous bearing of the raspberry may be secured in those 
varieties which endure the treatment, by cutting out a cane as soon 
as its fruit is gathered, the force of the plant being then devoted to 
the fruiting of a second cane, which has previously been 'pinched, 
and a third shoot is pinched and allowed to mature its wood to 
carry over and bear the first crop of the following year. A suc- 
cession of sprouts is gained by pinching off the tips of some as 
soon as they have grown up a few inches, which results in the 
growth of later shoots lower on the stems. In this way a succes- 
sion of fruit is obtained. 

The Cuthbert and other strong-growing varieties, after the 
pinching at about three feet from the ground, will send out laterals 
which will bear late in the fall, and the same cane will bear a crop 
early in the following spring, when its career is ended and it should 
be removed. 

Raspberries are planted about three feet apart in rows, and the 
rows about six feet apart. They can be well grown nearer together 
than is required for blackberries. 

Varieties of the Raspberry. — The old varieties have been largely 
replaced by the Cuthbert, which is the universally popular and most 
largely-planted sort, having been found trustworthy as a grower 
and as a free and constant bearer. The good points of the Cuth- 
bert, as representing the experience of many California growers, 
include the following: A profuse grower, with healthy and rich 
foliage, which protects fruit from sunburn ; an excellent bearer 
with the fruit well distributed through the bush; the fruit comes 
off easily, and does not crumble, is of fine flavor, and ships well. 
The Herstine, Franconia, King and Marlboro varieties are grown 
to a limited extent ; and the Barter; a renamed variety, the identity 
of which is unknown, has always retained a degree of popularity 
in the foothill region of Placer County, where it first appeared. 

The Black Cap varieties thrive fairly in most parts of the State, 
but do not sell well in the markets, and are only grown for home 
use. The golden or yellow raspberries are also out of favor be- 
cause they are shy bearers and cut no figure in the California 
product. 




The Loganberry (natural size), a California Hybrid. 



493 



494 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Blackberry-Raspberry Hybrids. — Two crosses of California ori- 
gin have been widely distributed and have demonstrated great 
value. 

The Loganberry was originated by Judge J. H. Logan of Santa 
Cruz, and is a cross between the California wild blackberry and a 
red raspberry, thought to be the red Antwerp. It was a chance 
hybrid developed by growing plants from the seed of the wild 
blackberry in 1881. The plant was multiplied by its originator 
and fruited for more than ten years, plants being meantime given 
to Mr. James Waters, of Watsonville, who grew it on a commercial 
scale and was gratified at the results of his marketing of the fruit. 
The variety was first given to the public through the University 
of California in 1893 and has since then been propagated by nur- 
serymen and sold in large quantities. It has proved a most val- 
uable fruit in all parts of California, and has commanded the at- 
tention of pomologists and growers all over the world. The Logan- 
berry is an exceedingly robust grower, and has unique foliage and 
cane growth as well as fruit. The fruit is strikingly large and 
handsome; sometimes an inch and a quarter long, with the shape 
of a blackberry, and sometimes the hue of a dark red raspberry. 
Its flavor is unique and peculiar, and gives to many tastes sugges- 
tions of the combination of blackberry and raspberry flavors. The 
culture of the Loganberry is like that of the dewberry — both in 
growth and propagation, rooting readily from cane tips without 
covering, unless many plants are desired and then a covered cane 
will root at each joint. 

The Phenomenal is a hybrid which has recently been largely 
grown for a trade which prefers a less sharp acid than that of the 
Loganberry. It is one of the notable achievements of Mr. Luther 
Burbank, of Santa Rosa, and is a cross between the California 
dewberry and a red raspberry. It is exceedingly large, bright 
crimson, very productive and of delicious flavor. The fruit comes 
in large clusters and single berries have weighed four to the ounce. 
In shipping it holds shape and color well. 

The Primus is another blackberry-raspberry hybrid, by Mr. Bur- 
bank. It is described as like a raspberry in color and shape, though 
much larger, many specimens attaining a length of an inch and 
a half by three quarters of an inch in diameter. It has a larger and 
softer pulp core or center than the blackberry, and does not come 
off the stem like a cap as a raspberry, but it is a little more tart and 
is best cooked. It ripens early and the plant yields well. It has 
been widely distributed and is popular for home use, softness and 
danger of crushing on the core in picking seem to be defects for 
commercial growing. It is a little earlier than Phenomenal. It 
has a trailing habit. 



STRAWBERRY GROWING 495 

THE STRAWBERRY 

" Strawberries all the year round " is the trite expression by 
which the charms of the California climate are characterized. It 
is no fiction, for in the wonderfully-even climate of regions adja- 
cent to the coast and in thermal belts in the interior, the straw- 
berry plant blooms and bears almost continuously, providing proper 
moisture conditions are maintained in the soil. There are, how- 
ever, more or less well-defined crops, and " strawberries all the 
year" does not mean a uniform supply ; nor does it mean that 
everywhere in California can one expect such constant fruiting. 
In the very hot interior situations the plant rebels against the at- 
mospheric conditions of midsummer, even though the ground be 
moist; and in frosty places the plant becomes dormant during the 
wintry portion of the year. The conditions of constant growth 
and bearing are moderation of temperature and of atmospheric and 
soil moisture throughout the year. 

SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE STRAWBERRY 

Bearing in mind the conditions described, the strawberry can be 
grown anywhere in California. The native species, as mentioned 
in Chapter V, flourish from the sand of the ocean beach to the rich 
valleys of the Sierra, just below the line of perpetual snow, and the 
deduction is that wherever fertile soil and sweet water can be 
brought together in California, the strawberry will reward the 
grower. 

Strawberries do well on a variety of soils, but as a rule a deep, 
moist, loamy soil will yield best results. Boggy or swampy spots 
should be avoided unless drainage is provided, and in this wav 
most excellent strawberry ground may sometimes be secured. Land 
which will produce good potatoes or corn will generally yield good 
results with strawberries, provided irrigation is furnished. In many 
regions the plants will hardly survive the summer without irriga- 
tion, and everywhere a succession of crops during the season de- 
pends upon irrigation. It is the common experience that light, 
warm soils yield the earliest and highest-flavored berriea, and heavy 
soils the later and larger ones ; but the size of the berry depends 
more upon the supply of available moisture, and immense fruit 
can be produced on loose, open soils by free irrigation. And yet 
the heavier soil, both because of its usually superior fertility and 
retention of moisture, is preferred for the strawberry. The largest 
producing regions for the San Francisco market in the Santa Clara 
and Pajaro Valleys are comprised mainly of low-lying, heavy val- 
ley soils, naturally moist and rich, and furnished with abundant 
water supply for irrigation. And yet in southern California the 
chief market crops are produced upon light sandy loams with 



496 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



water equal to the needs of the plants upon such a footing. It must 
be remembered that the strawberry is a shallow-rooting plant and 
must have moisture retained near the surface. Some loose soils, 
especially on uplands, are almost out of the question for straw- 
berry growing. They are so leachy that they will not hold mois- 
ture near the surface though one should startd with a hose and 
almost continually pour it on. The plants would also dry up 
though the water were running near by in a ditch. To grow 
strawberries it is often an advantage to have a shallow loam over 
a clay or hardpan, for then the tight layer below will prevent the 
escape of the water below the reach of the roots. If this can not be 
had, the best way to grow strawberries on leachy soils for home use 
is to mulch and sprinkle. 

Propagation of the Strawberry. — Seedlings undertaken in the 
hope of originating valuable new varieties are easily grown by 
taking off the outside layer of the choicest berries, which carries 
with it the small, yellow seeds. Wash these from the skin and 
cover them slightly in a sandy soil partially shaded and kept moist 
by sprinkling, or a light mulch, and the plants are readily grown. 
As with seedlings of other fruits, few, if any, will be found superior 
to the parent variety. 

Plants for setting out are secured by taking off the small 
growths rooted from runners. The strongest plants are those 
nearest to the parent plant. When these are allowed to root in 
small pots plunged into the soil, they are called " pot-grown," and 
are superior for planting out, but they are not largely used in this 
State. When plants of any variety are desired for new beds or 
fields, a row or more are allowed to send out runners during the 
summer, and these are fit for taking up and replanting the follow- 
ing winter or spring. 

Laying off Ground for Strawberries. — The essentials are deep 
and thorough pulverization of the soil and grading of the surface 
so that water will flow slowly in the ditches. Suggestions as to 
location of grade lines may be found in Chapter XV. The inclina- 
tion which answers for water distribution may be very slight; about 
two inches to the hundred feet answers on the level lands of the 
Pajaro Valley, while in the foothills much greater fall is made use 
of, and on hillsides rows are located on contour lines and not in 
straight lines. A grade of three and three-quarters inches to the 
hundred feet is sometimes used. The triangle described in Chapter 
XV can be used to fix the grades. 

Of course, in grading the field it is often necessary to give ad- 
jacent blocks opposite inclinations to provide for the return of the 
water. On hillsides, where the water is carried down a ridge to a 
flume, it is usual to keep the water always running away from the 
flume, and only enough is taken out to reach to the ends of the small 



LAYING OFF FOR STRAWBERRIES 



497 



ditches. A grade of six inches to the rod is practicable for hillside 
irrigation, but of course only a small flow of water is employed. 

There are various ways of laying out strawberry beds and plan- 
tations. Some give flat cultivation and lay out in single rows two 
and a half to three and a half feet apart, and in some districts 
flat culture is unquestionably the best. Others lay out in double 





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Strawberry Field laid off in double rows. ' 

rows a foot and one-half or two feet apart, and between each pair 
of rows the soil from the center is drawn up to each side, making a 
low ridge or level a little higher than the surface on which the 
plants are set. This levee serves as a walk between the beds and 
holds back the water upon the bed when irrigated by flooding. An- 
other, and the generally-adopted plan, is to have the plants in 
double rows on a slight ridge, while between the beds is a furrow 
which serves as a walk and for irrigation. This is accomplished 
by throwing up the soil with the plow into ridges about two feet 
wide, with a double furrow between. On the sides of these ridges 
the plants are set, and often on the top of the ridge between the 
rows of strawberries a single row of onions or lettuce, or some 
other vegetable, is grown the first year. In irrigation the water 
is drawn up from the trenches by the roots and by capillary attrac- 
tion, and the upper surface does not bake as it would by flooding if 
the soil be heavy. In hoeing out weeds and in fruit gathering, the 
workman walks in the ditch and does not pack the soil around the 
plant by tramping. This is the best method for laying out for large 
plantations. The rows are a uniform distance apart across the 
field, whether the space between be a ridge or a ditch. The method 



498 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



of making the beds a little lower than the general surface of the 
ground, answers best on free, open soils with perfect drainage. 
Cultivation can be reduced by covering the depressed surface of 
the bed with mulch of fine, clean litter, such as chafif, cut straw, 
etc. This retains moisture and gives the berry a clean surface to 
rest on. Such a bed is an excellent arrangement for the home gar- 
den. 

In all arrangements the plants are set at less distances in the 
rows than the rows are from each other. Probably the prevailing 
distance is one foot between the plants ; the range is from eight 
to eighteen inches in the practice of dififerent growers, and deter- 
mined, of course, largely by the habit of the variety. A vine like 
the Sharpless, with a spreading growth and long fruit stems needs, 
perhaps, sixteen inches which some growers give it, while the 
smaller more compact, Longworth Prolific, may do well with half 
that distance. 

Planting Strawberries. — Strawberry plants are set out either in 
spring or fall, or at any time in the winter when the ground is warm 
and in good condition. Fall planting usually gives a fuller springi; 
crop though planting as late as February has brought two crops the 
following spring and summer, and planting in April has secured 
fruit the same year, but it is better to prevent it and induce more 
growth. Spring planting is in April and May. In the drier parts 
of the State, early fall or winter planting is more essential than else- 
where. If the ground is dry, water should always be used in plant- 
ing. This may be given by thorough irrigation of the ground be- 
fore planting, or a little water may be used in setting each plant. 
At planting it is usually best to remove all leaves from the plant, 
shorten the roots to three inches or less, and be sure the plants 
do not dry while planting progresses. As with handling rooted 
grape-vines, it is advisable to carry around the plants in a vessel 
which has water in it. If the plants have been received by mail 
they are invigorated by soaking in water a few hours before plant- 
ing. 

In setting the plants, scoop out a little excavation with the hand 
or a trowel, spread the roots well, cover with fine soil, being sure 
that the crown of the plant shall not be below the surface when the 
soil is leveled. Too many strawberry plants are buried, not planted. 
Some plant very rapidly by using a dibble to make a hole, into 
which the roots are dropped and soil pressed around them by using 
the dibble alongside ; others set the plants on the side of the fur- 
row, trusting to the next furrow to complete the covering. Nearly 
all ways succeed if the plant is not set too deeply and the ground 
is moist at planting and not allowed to dry out afterwards — pro- 
viding good, strong plants are used. In buying plants it is often 
poor economy to buy the cheapest. 



CARE OP THE STRAWBERRY 499 

Staminate and Pistillate. — In associating varieties be sure the 
pistillate varieties are not set by themselves. Some sorts have 
perfect flowers and are self-fertilizing; others have only the pistil- 
late element in the bloom and must have the staminate adjacent in 
another variety. All the varieties largely grown in California have 
perfect flowers, though some pistillate sorts have been locally ap- 
proved. 

Care of the Strawberry Plantation. — Herein lies the secret of 
success with the strawberry. Neglect has led to disappointment and 
condemnation of the strawberry, where intelligent care would have 
rendered it a constant delight. The cheap elements of proper care 
may be thus enumerated : 

Retention of moisture very near the surface by careful, shallow 
cultivation or by mulching, persistent destruction of weeds, and 
compensation for summer evaporation by frequent irrigation. The 
plants during the bearing season should never be allowed to show 
any leaf-shriveling from drouth. Frequency of irrigation depends 
upon local conditions. Irrigation at intervals of four to ten days, 
according to the soil, are the outlines of prevailing practice. 

Constant removal of runners from all plants except those it is 
desired to multiply to, furnish new plants or to fill the rows. Pinch- 
ing of runners should always accompany picking or hoeing of 
weeds, and on the garden bed there can be no excuse for neglect 
in this respect. The young plants should be faithfully freed from 
runners to strengthen them up for bearing. 

Though, as already stated, strawberries may in some locations 
be had all winter, it is better practice, as a general rule, to lay the 
plants away for a rest. The market season in the regions supplying 
the San Francisco market extends from April to December, and 
fruit is continuously shipped during that period. At the approach 
of winter in the last-named month, it is usual to go over the beds 
with a sickle, cutting off the old crops of leaves close to the root 
crown, carefully cleaning up the plantation for the heavy rains. In 
most cases it will be a great advantage then to cover over all with 
a light coat of good manure, which the winter rains will leach down 
in to the soils. The result of the fall clipping and enriching will 
be an early and strong start of the plant in the spring, and a most 
abundant fruitage. 

Duration of the Plantation. — Strawberry plants well cared for 
and not visited by insect pests, have a long, productive, and profit- 
able life in California. Twelve-year-old plants are sometimes re- 
ported as still producing abundantly. It is customary to count from 
five to eight years as the profitable life of a plant, though some 
growers replant after two bearing years. The efifective duration 
depends* directly upon preventing growth of plants and too close 
matting of the rows. 



500 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Varieties of the Strawberry. — Though all new varieties are tried 
by California growers, and quite a number may be considered suc- 
cessful either for market or for home use, only a very few may 
be said to be widely grown. In the Watsonville district, which 
largely supplies San Francisco, the Melinda, which some growers 
hold to be indistinguishable from the Dollar, is chiefly grown, with 
Brandywine as a distant second. In the Florin district, near Sac- 
ramento, growing berries to ship all through the northern States of 
the coast and eastward to Colorado, the Dollar is grown almost ex- 
clusively, with a few Jessies for extra early. Excelsior is also 
grown. In the districts near Los Angeles, the Brandywine pre- 
vails. It is best for shipping and is held to be sweeter than at the 
east and next to it, in the commercial fields at the south, is Klon- 
dyke. The Arizona Everbearing is declining in popularity al- 
though still favored by amateurs for home use. 

Three old kinds which still hold favor for home use and local 
sale are the Longworth Prolific, the Sharpless, and the Monarch 
of the West. The Sharpless is the most widely grown; the Mon- 
arch shows better size and color in southern California and on the 
Sierra foot-hills than in the regions adjacent to San Francisco, al- 
though it is still grown therein to some extent. The Longworth 
is an old favorite, early, productive, and hardy, and its style has 
become very popular in the markets. Wilson's Albany also holds 
favor. 

It has been demonstrated that varieties show marked difference 
in behavior in different soils and situations. In planting for mar- 
ket or home use the planter will be safe in making his largest plan- 
tations of the varieties commended by leading growers and well 
informed nurserymen, and at the same time he should put out 
experimental plants of other varieties. 

The most notable work for new varieties in California is being 
pursued by Albert F. Etter, of Briceland, Humboldt county. He 
is crossing cultivated varieties with local wild species and is thus 
introducing factors not employed hitherto with results which prom- 
ise to be notable. His first named variety is Rose Ettersburg, 
which is a cross of a third generation Sharpless x Parry with a 
novel type of Fragaria Chiloensis. It has remarkable drouth resis- 
tance and thrift on poor soils. The blossoms are often as large 
as a silver dollar, the berries large, often 1^ inches in diameter, and 
blush pink in color. Single stocks from sets 18 months out meas- 
ured 22 inches high and over 10 feet in circumferance. Mr. Etter's 
work is described in detail in the Pacific Rural Press for August 22 
and 29 and September 5 and 19, 1908, and is very interesting. 



PART SEVEN: NUTS 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
NUT GROWING IN CALIFORNIA 

Two nuts have risen to large commercial importance in Cali- 
fornia : The English walnut and the almond. Other nuts than 
these, except peanuts, have never attained great acreage, although 
several have succeeded and promise to become popular. 

The commercial production of almonds and walnuts in Califor- 
nia during the last thirteen years has been estimated by the trade 
as follows, in tons of 2,000 lbs. : 



Year Almonds Walnijts 

1895 825 2,310 

1S96 1,605 4,115 

1897 2,375 3,985 

1898 450 5,660 

1899 2,320 5,530 

1900 2,740 5,430 

1901 1,560 6,910 

1802 3,270 8,520 

1903 3,200 5,500 

1904 800 7,590 

1S05 2,125 5,750 

1906 900 6,125 

1807 750 6,500 

1908 2,900 8,500 

1909 1,500 8,000 



The walnuts are chiefly grown in Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los 
Angeles and Orange counties in Southern California. The almonds 
are from interior counties in the central regions of the State. Rea- 
sons for the extreme fluctuations in production will be suggested 
by the discussion of each nut which will follow. 

THE ALMOND 

The almond has an interesting history in California, but it can 
be outlined in a few sentences. The importation of the best Euro- 
pean varieties began very early, and a number of them had been 
planted in 1853. They proved irregular bearers, though the trees 
grew thriftily and in some cases showed fruit very soon after 

501 



502 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



planting. The barren almond trees were largely grafted into 
prunes or made into firewood and the conclusion was reached that 
to secure regularity and abundance in fruiting, locations for almond 
orchards must be sought with the utmost care, and that the secret 
of success lay in the location. After that local seedlings seemeci 
to demonstrate their value in regular crops, and in characteristics 
and qualities superior to foreign kinds. Large planting was then 
undertaken on the ground that the choice of soil and situation, 
and the selection of trustworthy varieties, are both factors of suc- 
cess, but that possibly more lay in the choice of variety than of 
location. This belief led to wide planting in locations now seen 
to be unfitted by reason of frosts and losses were again encoun- 
tered. Now it seems to be fully demonstrated that no matter what 
variety is planted, locations for the almond must be selected with 
great care. It has also been demonstrated that association of 
varieties promotes pollination and satisfactory bearing. 

Situations and Soils for the Almond. — Almonds are now doing 
best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and pro- 
tected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes; also at 
various points in the interior valleys and foot-hills. The general 
proposition that low lands in small valleys should be avoided, and 
bench or hillside situations preferred, seems to be a safe one. Lands 
directly upon the coast have not proved satisfactory. In the large 
interior valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, almonds are 
successfully grown on flat valley lands but little lifted above sea 
level and from such plains the chief product comes. Why almonds 
are safer on the low lands of a great valley than of a small valley is 
explained by the discussion on page 15. 

The almond prefers a loose, light, warm soil, and heavy, poorly- 
drained soils should be avoided. Though they need moisture 
enough to make good, thrifty growth they will produce good crops 
on soils that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory peaches, apri- 
cots, nectarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruit. The almond is, how- 
ever, a very deep-rooting tree, and may succeed by reaching deeply 
for moisture rather than by dejnying itself, as some think. The 
tree certainly suffers and is barren from drouth in some cases. 

Propagating, Planting, and Pruning. — The almond is propa- 
gated from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and 
budded as described in Chapter IX. The almond root is preferred, 
though the peach answers well. The apricot root should 
be avoided. 

For planting out, trees in dormant bud are very successful if 
given proper care. Yearling trees are, on the whole, best, and 
usually those wliich have made a moderate instead of a very large 
growth are to be preferred. The almond makes a comparatively 



ALMOND HARVESTING 



503 



large tree and should have plenty of room — not less than twenty- 
four feet apart (though some plantations are made at twenty feet), 
and thirty feet is better. 

Old almond trees are readily worked over to other varieties by 
grafting and by budding into new shoots forced out by cutting 
off large branches. Methods with the peach described on page 
280 are applicable to the almond. 

The pruning of the almond is very simple. The tree should 
be headed low and pruned during the first three years, as de- 
scribed in Chapter XII, to secure a shapely, strong tree. After 
the third year little pruning is required except to thin out objec- 
tionable branches by winter pruning. There is danger of allowing 
the trees to become too dense. Shortening in, as practiced with the 
peach, is sometimes proposed for the almond, for the thrift of the 
tree and the size of the nut, but growers have not had courage 
enough to assume the increased cost of production which would 
be involved. 

The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as com- 
mended for other fruit trees, and as the trees are often planted in 
naturally dry soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to 
retain sufficient moisture to give good size to the nuts. In certain 
locations, of course, irrigation will be necessary, but usually a light 
rainfall will answer if good cultivation is given. 

Gathering, Hulling, and Bleaching. — Almonds are gathered by 
spreading canvas under the tree and shaking the branches sepa- 
rately; the few nuts remaining can be displaced by striking with 
a light stick. The gathering should be done after the hulls have 
burst open, but should not be delayed until the nuts are badly 
discolored. Discoloration of the nut depends upon local atmos- 
pheric conditions and is worst in regions subject to moist winds 
or fogs from the ocean, and they often extend considerable dis- 
tances into the interior valleys. On dry plateaux adjacent to the 
Mojave Desert perfectly bright almonds are produced naturally, 
but at these elevations frost injuries are frequent and notable. 

Hulling is done with machines devised for that purpose. There 
are several in use and recently great capacity and cheapness of 
operation have been attained. 

For the greater part of the almond product bleaching is appar- 
ently demanded by market requirements. Sulphur should not be 
applied until the nut is thoroughly dry, or else the fumes will 
penetrate it, and not only spoil its flavor, but will destroy its ger- 
minating power. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun on plat- 
forms or trays, and in dewy places should be covered during the 
night. After being well dried, sprinkle the nuts sufficiently to 
moisten the shell surface only and apply sulphur fumes. Various 
home-made contrivances are used for bleaching, such as piling up 



504 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



several of the slat-bottom trays one upon another, placing around 
them sides made of boards so as to hook together at the corners, 
cover the top with a damp canvas, and burn the sulphur in a hole 
in the ground below the bottom tray. 

Webster Treat, formerly a large grower of almonds, describes 
his sulphuring-house for almonds : 

My bleaching-house is about twenty-five feet by eight feet, and I generally 
put in about four thousand pounds of almonds and expose them to sulphur 
fumes for three or four hours. The house is boarded with tongue and groove 
flooring, inside and out, and roofed with well-laid shingles, and has a flue 
about two feet high on the apex, to help draft the sulphur smoke up. The floor 
is of one-by-three-inch stuff, set up edgewise, three-eighths of an inch apart, 
or just wide enough to admit the fumes from the sulphur burning below, and 
narrow enough to prevent the nuts from falling through. The floor is about 
two and oncThalf feet above the ground, and the lower space is boarded up 
with tongue and groove also and fitted with small doors every five feet, so that 
the sulphur pans can be placed underneath the floor. 

Sulphur fumes are applied until the nuts are of a light y.ellow- 
ish color ; the proper shade is to be learned by securing approved 
samples from sOme trustworthy dealer. 

The following explicit account of handling almonds on a large 
scale is by Mr. J. P. Dargitz, of Acampo, San Joaquin county : 

"When the hulls on the nuts are loose from the shell, as will 
be indicated by their bursting open, it is time to begin gathering if 
you wish to hull them. If they get too dry you will have to wet 
them before hulling or you will break the shells. If you wish to 
shell them then, the drier they get the better. It will not pay to 
begin until the nuts about the crotches of the trees are ready and 
they will be the last to ripen. When they are all ready you can 
get all at one gathering. Have some sheets made of heavy un- 
bleached sheeting or light duck or sail cloth. Mine for large trees 
are 15x30 feet, handled by two men to- a sheet and two sheets to a 
tree. Spread the sheets under the tree, one on each side, lapping 
the edges where they join. Then the men take willow or bamboo 
poles and by jarring the limbs cause the nuts to fall on the sheets. 
Always strike the limb sideways, for if you strike a glancing blow 
down the limb, you will reduce next year's crop. The object is to 
get the nuts and disturb the foliage as little as possible. Of course, 
you will get some nuts and twigs with the leaves anyway. When 
the nuts are all off the tree, the men toss their poles to the next 
tree and then gather up the sheets, one man at each end of each 
sheet and, lifting them, carry them to the next tree where the pro- 
cess is repeated. When enough nuts are in sheets to fill several 
lug boxes, the boxes are placed on the ground side by side, and the 
sheets are emptied of their burden. These boxes are then stacked 
up so as to be easily seen, and the teamster gathers them up and 
hauls them in to the shed where they are run through the huller 
and then placed in the hoppers ready for the hand sorting. After 



POLLINIZING THE ALMOND 



505 



sorting they are placed on trays or board platforms in the dry- 
yard to cure. They should be cured until the kernel will break 
without bending. Then they are ready for bleaching; but be sure 
they are thoroughly cured before bleaching or the kernel will 
absorb the sulphur and be spoiled. When properly cured, any 
means may be employed which will thoroughly dampen the shell 
but not penetrate to the kernel and then be subjected to the fumes 
of burning sulphur for a period of 30 minutes to one or two hours 
owing to the variety and condition of the nut. A yellowish white 
color of the shell is demanded by the trade. Do not over-sulphur. 
When sufficiently bleached they are removed and placed in the 
sun for a few hours to dry, and then sacked up ready for market. 
My present plan of bleaching, given me by Mr. Reed, of Suisun, is 
as follows : When cured we place the nuts about one inch thick 
on fruit trays and run them into a division of the sulphur house 
which has been connected with a steam boiler (five horse-power), 
and low pressure steam (20 pounds), is turned into the house for a 
half or three-quarters of an hour. Then they are removed and 
quickly run in another division which has a sulphur charge ready 
fired and bleached from 40 minutes to an hour, when they are re- 
moved and immediately sacked. The same help will bleach twice 
as many in a day with steam as without it. Be careful not to use 
high pressure steam or you will cook the nuts." 

Pollination and Late Blooming. — The advantage of cross pol- 
lination between dififerent varieties and the surer bearing of late 
blooming varieties are related subjects which are worthy of close 
attention. Mr. J. P. Dargitz, whose harvesting method has just 
been given, has pointed out that, according to his observation as 
a rule all the paper-shells are deficient in pollen, and will not 
bear well if planted alone and he concludes that the only two which 
warrant planting in his section are the Nonpareil and the Ne Plus 
Ultra. The latter is not a very good nut, and needs much more 
moisture than the other. The Nonpareil will give good results if 
planted with some other variety as pollenizer. It is one of the very 
best of nuts and is well worth planting. Mr. Dargitz regards the 
Texas Prolific the very best pollenizer, and when planted in alter- 
nate double rows with the Nonpareil will cause it to set fruit freely 
in spite of the fact that the Nonpareil begins blooming two weeks 
earlier than the Texas but still has bloom to catch the Texas pol- 
len when it is ready. 

This late blooming of the Texas places it in the same class 
for surety with Drake's Seedling. Both nuts are medium soft 
shell and small but are being largely chosen because of sure bear- 
ing and large product. As to the relative return per sack, Mr. Dar- 
gitz says : 



506 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The Nonpareil at 14 cents per pound, the Drake Seedling at 11 cents per 
pound, and the Texas Prolific at 10 cents per pound, will each bring about 
$10.50 per standard sack the IXL at 13 cents per pound about $9 per sack, and 
the Ne Plus Ultra at 12 cents per pound about $8.50 per sack. 

Varieties of the Almond. — Almonds should bear well every 
year, hull easily, have clean, thin, soft shells, and a smooth, bright, 
and plump kernel. Almonds with long, single kernels are pre- 
ferred in general to those which have double ones. These are the 
characters which ruled in the selection of new varieties by the pio- 
neer propagator of new almonds, A. T. Hatch, formerly of Sui- 
sun. In 1878 Air. Hatch planted out about two thousand five hun- 
dred seedling almond trees grown from bitter almond seed. He 
afterward budded all the seedlings but about three hundred, which 
were left to bearing age unbudded. The fruit of these seedlings 
was of all degrees of excellence. A few of the best of them were 
selected for propagation and naming, and they constitute the chief 
part of the acreage which is now bearing almonds, but other late 
bloomers and surer bearers are being preferred in current planting. 

Excellent seedling almonds have also been produced by other 
growers. The following list includes the sorts most widely grown : 

IXL. — Tree a sturdy, rather upright grower, with large leaves; nuts large 
with, as a rule, single kernels; hulls easily, no machine being needed, nor is any 
bleaching necessary; shell soft, but perfect; largely discarded for shy bearing, 
but desirable in some places. 

Ne Plus Ultra. — Large and very long in shape; heavy and regular bearer; 
soft shell; hull free. 

Nonpareil. — First called Extra. Of a weeping style of growth; smaller foliage 
than the IXL, but still forms a beautiful tree. An extraordinarily heavy and 
regular bearer, with very thin shell, of the Paper Shell type. Ripens early and 
can be gathered before other varieties are ready. 

Lewellings Prolific. — Originated with the late Mr. John Lewelling; "tree a 
great bearer; of drooping habit; nut large and good; soft shell; hull free." — 
Leonard Coates. 

Harriott's Seedling (or Commercial). — From Visalia, where it is a surer 
cropper than elsewhere ; shell softer than the Languedoc ; nut long, of peculiar 
shape, quite large; kernel sweet. 

King's Soft Shell. — Originated in San Jose; shell very thin and soft; regular 
and abundant bearer. 

Princess. — The finest of the Paper Shell class; long, oval, kernel large, white 
and sweet. 

Languedoc. — Nut large; shell thin; kernel sweet; condemned for irregular 
bearing. 

Paper Shell. — Medium size; shell very tender, easily broken between the 
finger and thumb; kernel large, white and sweet. 

Drake's Seedling. — Originated with Mr. Drake, of Suisun, of the Languedoc 
class; very prolific, and a regular, abundant bearer. A late blooming variety. 

Golden State. — Originated by Webster Treat. A large soft-shell, somewhat 
longer than the Languedoc, with a full, smooth-skinned meat; parts from the 
hull readily. An early variety, but in less favor than formerly. 

Peerless. — Resembling IXL. Popular in Yolo county for regular and heavy 
bearing. 



THE CHESTNUT 



507 



Texas Proline. — Brought, from Texas by Robert Williamson, of W. R. Strong 
& Co., of Sacramento, about 1891, as a seedling originated at Dallas, and the 
only almond which would bear there. Planted at Acampo by Robert Adams, 
who had charge of the company's nurseries at that place ; fully discussed by 
J. P. Dargitz, of Acampo, and described by the introducer as resembling Lan- 
guedoc in tree and nut, but with softer shell, which is filled with very sweet 
kernel. Blooms two weeks later than Drake. Mr. Dargitz reports fifteen 
years without failure to bear and usually prolifically. 

Jordan Almond. — This long, hard-shelled almond, notable because of its long, 
slim kernel for "salted almonds" and imported at high cost for that purpose, has 
been introduced both through government distribution and private enterprise, 
notably that of the late John Rock, of the California Nursery Co., of Niles. 
Too little has yet been seen to determine the value of the variety in local 
production. 

THE CHESTNUT ■ 

The chestnut is not yet produced in large amount in Califor- 
nia, and certain quantities of the nuts are annually imported, the 
American, Italian, or Spanish and Japanese all being found in the 
San Francisco markets. Of chestnuts grown in California, the 
Italian predominates, and the Japanese is more covctraon than the 
American, which is slow of growth and late in fruiting, as com- 
pared with the other kinds. Judging the success of the Italian, it 
may be said that a large area of California is well suited for the 
growth of the chestnut, as there are bearing trees in nearly all 
parts of the State. The chestnut succeeds on heavy, clayey soil, 
even if it be quite rocky. 

Chestnut trees are readily grown from the seed, and thus grown. 
come into bearing in from six to eight years, though the Japanese 
sometimes bears sooner. The growth of chestnuts from the seed 
is described in Chapter VIII. In growing from seed of the im- 
proved varieties, there is a tendency toward reversion, and budding 
and grafting may be resorted to; and can be done by the methods 
described in the chapter on the fig. The chestnut can also be 
grafted with the ordinary cleft graft. Buds or scions should be 
taken from trees which are fruiting satisfactorily, and in this way 
seedlings which have a tendency to bear empty burs can be turned 
to good account. Chestnuts can be grown in the nursery until 
several years old, providing they are lifted at the end of th^ first 
year, the taproot cut off, and the trees reset, giving them rather 
more room than during their first year's growth. In permanent 
plantings the trees should have plenty of room, as they ultimately 
attain great size. Trees at Grass Valley, Nevada county, when 
about twenty years old, fifteen inches in diameter of trunk, and 
forty feet high, and reported to bear a barrel of nuts to the tree 
regularly. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, has for many years made 
a specialty of propagating a large collection of the improved French 
varieties of the chestnut, known as Marrons, which were distrib- 
uted to some extent. The chestnut chiefly grown is the Italian 



508 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



but it has not attained any considerable product as yet. The chest- 
nut, aside from its desirability as an orchard tree, can be com- 
mended as a tree for hillsides or a shade tree for waysides or pas- 
tures, and should be more widely planted in California. The chief 
product is in the foothill district east of the San Joaquin valley. 

THE FILBERT 

The best English cob-nuts have been quite widel}^ tried in Cal- 
ifornia without successful results. Improved Spanish and French 
varieties of the filbert were early introduced by Felix Gillet, of 
Nevada City, and have been favorably reported by him as to growth 
and bearing. A few other growers in foot-hill situations have re- 
ported success, but as a rule disappointment has attended ven- 
tures with the filbert. The most favorable regions for farther ex- 
periment are apparently the north slopes of the Coast Range, and 
other cooler and moister situations, as well as at an elevation on 
the Sierra foot-hills where Mr. Gillet found them satisfactory. 

THE PEANUT 

During the last few years the peanut product of California has 
notably increased, and the crop is a popular one in some parts of 
the San Joaquin Valley and southern California. The nuts are 
considerably grown between the rows in young orchards and vine- 
yards, as well as upon ground wholly given to them. The follow- 
ing explicit directions are given by R. M. Hargrave, a grower in 
Orange County. Some slight modifications in practice may be 
needed, according to locality, as, for example, in time of planting, 
which is usually a little earlier than the date given : 

Planting. — The best time to plant peanuts is about the middle of May, say, 
lOth to 15th, in rows about three to four feet apart and sixteen to twenty 
inches the other way, and not cover too deep — three or four inches. Peanuts 
planted the middle of May ripen evenly and are of uniform size. Very early 
peanuts ripen unevenly, and the first nuts that set on get so ripe they turn 
to a pink color, and if the land is a little sandy the stems get soft, lose their 
strength, and will not lift the nuts from the ground. 

It takes about thirty pounds of the California or White Virginia, and fifty 
pounds of the Tennessee Reds to plant an acre. Tennessee peanuts can be 
planted much closer in the rows. The California peanut is the best to plant, as 
it yields three or four times as much as the Tennessee Reds do, and has more 
ready sale. 

The Quality of Land. — Peanuts require a rich sandy soil loam that is known as 
upland. Damp land gives the nuts a straw color, and they are not as good 
probably as those raised on higher land. They require no irrigation, except 
on very sandy land, where some have found it profitable ; but, as a usual thing, 
when irrigated the ground is liable to get hard, making the nuts crooked, 
ill-shaped, and many times coloring them. 

Cultivation. — Peanuts should be cultivated about the same as corn, not 
allowing any weeds to grow in them, keeping the ground loose and mellow, 
and when the spikes begin to form, they should not be disturbed. If they are, 



PEANUT AND PECAN 



509 



it causes the nuts to blight or not fill out. The blooms do not require to be 
covered. 

Harvesting. — Peanuts should be harvested when ripe, and not allowed to 
stand too long, in hopes that the last ones set out will fill out and ripen, as 
you lose more than you gain. The little ones spoil the sale of the crop, and 
many are left in the ground that get over-ripe. Peanuts should be cut or 
plowed out and thrown into windrows, nuts down, and let lie a week or ten 
days, and then sacked, as the best nuts are cured in that way, and they do not 
mold so badly, and cure a better color. They must not be allowed to get wet. 
The tops are good feed if stored away in a shed for winter use. All kinds of 
stock like them, and small nuts can be left on the vines. The> make the best 
chicken feed. An average yield is about twenty-five to thirty sacks to the acre, 
forty pounds to a sack, but many have raised fifty sacks, with extra care and 
good land well adapted to peanuts. 

THE PECAN 

The pecan, by rapid growth early fruitirtg, and general thrift, 
seems to be the member of the hickory family best fitted for Cali- 
fornia conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by J. R. Wolf- 
skill, on Putah Creek, in 1878 was, when twenty-five years old, 
over fifty feet high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, grow- 
ing luxuriantly and bearing freely. Still older trees, also very sat- 
isfactory in growth and bearing, are to be seen at Chico and Visa- 
lia. The pecan, though grown for thirty years by different parties 
around the bay of San Francisco, either does not bear or keeps the 
nuts hanging on until sometimes they sprout on the tree. The 
wider extremes in temperature or in humidity in the interior seem 
to teach the tree better habits of growth, and rest and moist low- 
lands in the great valleys seem best for pecan planting. As yet, 
California has no marketable product of pecans but the total num- 
ber of trees in the state is insignificant. 

Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh. Plant- 
ers should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a great dif- 
ference in size and quality) direct from growers in the southern 
States, and plant as soon as received, in the early winter, or if 
conditions are not favorable for planting, the nuts should be stored 
as described in Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good nursery 
ground in rows as there suggested, and covered about two inches 
or a little deeper in dry, loose soil, and then mulched to retain mois- 
ture, will germinate freely. The trees should be transplanted to 
permanent place at the end of the first year and then usually the 
taproot can be retained, as some growers deem very desirable ; if 
the trees are to be put in permanent place later they should be 
transplanted in the nursery and the taproot cut off. The nuts can, 
of course, be planted at once in permanent place if one will take 
the extra trouble necessary to properly care for them. 



510 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

THE PISTACHIO 

The pistachio nut (Pistachia vera) was introduced a number of 
years ago but no results have been reported. The species upon 
its own root makes a low shrub and is slow of growth. We have 
also imported the Pistachia terehinthus, from which is derived the 
"chio turpentine," the stock the true pistachio is grafted upon in 
Europe and which is growing thriftily at several points in the 
State. The pistachio needs more time to declare its California 
career. 

THE ENGLISH OR PERSIAN WALNUT 

The nut which is signified in California when the term walnut 
is used, is the English walnut or Madeira nut (Juglans regia) and 
its many varieties. This tree makes a grand growth in California. 
Specimens are seen here and there, which, at about twenty years 
of age are from fifty to sixty feet in height, with a spread of 
branches of forty to sixty feet, and in some cases bearing four to 
eight hundred pounds of nuts. Much larger and older trees can 
be found in the coast and interior valleys of central California 
where the nut was first planted, although, as has already been 
stated, the nut has thus far been produced in large quantities only 
in regions adjacent to the coast in southern California. The equa- 
ble temperature and moisture of the southern coast seems to speci- 
ally favor the nut, but it must not be inferred that success can 
only be attained in such situations. A number of French varieties, 
which have been widely enough distributed to test their growth, 
have been found to thrive in many situations where the old Los 
Angeles variety is a failure, and there is at present quite a disposi- 
tion to larger plantings of the walnut in all California valleys, 
either as a sole occupant of the land or as border trees around fruit 
orchards. At the South the walnut area has largely increased in 
those situations where the tree shows most satisfactory bearing 
qualities, and newer varieties of California origin, like the Im- 
proved Soft Shell, constitute most of the present area. In all un- 
tried places, or in all places where the old Los Angeles Walnut has 
failed, trial should be made of the hardy French varieties, which 
will be described farther on. Recently considerable planting has 
been done in the coast and interior valleys and foot-hills of central 
California upon the quite fully demonstrated success of these va- 
rieties. It is, however, very desirable to secure satisfactory depth 
and retentiveness, without excess of water, in the soil. The wal- 
nut abhors drouth as well as standing water. 

Soils for the Walnut. — The walnut makes most rapid growth 
upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation of 
good things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it attains 
satisfactory size and bearing in less favorable situations. Thriving 



ROOTS FOR THE ENGLISH WALNUT 



511 



trees can be found in the clays and decomposed granite soils of the 
foot-hills, as well as in the valley silts and loams. Adequate mois- 
ture must, however, be had, and the walnut can not be commended 
for dry, neglected places nor for soils which overlie leachy subsoils 
described on page 36. 

Propagation. — The walnut tree grows readily from nuts treated 
as described in Chapter VIII. In the main the use of seedlings 
has hitherto prevailed, and the nut has been looked upon as com- 
ing sufificiently true from seed. Recently, however, this has changed 
rapidly, and grafting to secure a high, uniform grade and to secure 
fruitfulness in spite of the blight is commanding wide attention. 

Excellent results have been obtained by using the California 
black as a stock for the English walnut, and in that case budding 
or grafting must be resorted to. Many instances of the success 
of the English walnut on our native stock might be cited, but the 
most notable tree known to the writer is to be seen on the grounds 
of John R. Wolfskin, on Putah Creek, in Solano County. He put 
in a bud in 1875 and the tree has reached immense size and large 
product. Since then many large native black walnuts have been 
top-grafted with the English walnut with notable success, not only 
in orchards, but along highways where the native black walnut has 
been planted for shade and ornament. 

Mr. F. S. Leib, of San Jose, who has given much attention to 
stocks for the English walnut believes that the cross of the Cali- 
fornia black and the Eastern black walnuts and the California black 
walnut straight afford the best seedlings for roots for the English 
walnut, but advises close selection to secure the best growth. This 
is his prescription : 

"The Royal hybrid (every cross between the native Eastern 
black walnut and the native California black walnut is called a 
Royal hybrid), is, in my opinion, the most magnificent growing tree 
in the walnut line, and I believe that in the future some Royal hy- 
brids can, by persistent selection, be sufficiently fixed to furnish 
the strongest possible roots of substantial uniformity on which to 
graft. At present I know of only one tree, picked out from many 
hundreds, which is sufficiently fixed to grow a fair percentage of 
seedlings equal to itself. Only from one to two per cent of the 
seedlings of most Royal hybrids is equal to the parent, and the per- 
centage of even the best straight California is only from fifteen to 
twenty per cent, and the poorest give less than one per cent. 

At present, we, by a system of sprouting, are able to eliminate 
four-fifths of the weakest growing nuts, and we plant the remaining 
fifth in the nursery. Twenty-five per cent of such remaining nuts 
from our selected trees of Royal hybrid blood, and fifteen to twenty 
per cent from our selected California trees, grow three to four feet 
the first year. The three to four foot seedlings in the nursery are 



512 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Eleven Nuts on Two-Year Grafts on Three- 
Year California Root. 



grafted when one year old, and the remaining smaller trees are left 
for another year; and for this reason a small per cent make a dis- 
proportionately large growth of root compared to its moderate top 
the first year, and make an immense growth of top the second year. 
All Paradox hybrids (English walnut crossed with California 
black) make a large root and but a moderate top the first year, as 
do many seedlings from the Royal hybrid, and as do very, very few 
from the straight California. These few trees, which make good 
the second year, three or four per cent, possibly, of the trees left 
to grow another year in the nursery, are grafted at the end of the 
second year, and the balance thrown away as unworthy to be grafted 



BUDDING WALNUTS 



513 



and given a chance in orchard form ; for a tree which is to have in 
the orchard from sixteen hundred to thirty-six hundred square feet, 
can not be too good, either as to root or top. 

Budding the Walnut. — In working on the native California 
seedling stocks, Mr. Clowes, of Stockton, buds by the common 
method, removing the wood from the inside of the plate of bark, as 
advised for the orange. Twig buds as used with the olive are also 




Four months' growth of Walnut Grafts — J. B. Neff, Anaheim, 

successful, and ring budding works well on shoots of a year's 
growth, which have at least attained the thickness of the middle 
finger. Mr. Gillet advises that the buds should be set at the base 
of these shoots where the wood is perfectly round. The bandage 
should pass above and below the bud so that the bark under it may 
be pressed down close upon the stock, and this is more surely gained 
by shaving off the base of the leaf stem, below the bud, about to the 
point where it would separate when the leaf naturally falls off. 
Mr. A. W. Keith, of Selma, has hit upon a very interesting 



514 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Yearling seedling Black Walnuts grown on moist, subirrigated land, 

method of preparing walnut buds. In taking a fresh bud from the 
new growth of the walnut he found the large leaf stem a serious 
impediment in firmly placing a shield bud upon the cambium of 
the stock and binding it there. Shaving it away with a knife left too 
much exposed tissue. If the leaf stem would drop off as it does 
when mature and leave a healed-over scar, the result would be a 
flat surface with only the bud protruding, and this could be easily 
bound in place so as to exclude the air. He tried cutting off the 



• BUDDING WALNUTS 5]^5 

compound leaf, leaving a stub of an inch or so, and was delighted 
to find that a stub thus left became dry and parted from the stem 
just as a mature leaf does in the autumn. By cutting off the leaves 
in this way about August 15, the stubs part readily before Septem- 
ber 1, and then he takes off clean, flat buds and uses them just as 
he does in budding the peach, except that he leaves no wood behind 
the bud. He takes rather alarge shield and puts it under the bark 
of the stock through a "T" cut, then wraps well with a strip of 
cheese cloth and waxes over the cloth with ordinary grafting wax. 
The wrapping is applied so as to cover most of the bark slit, every- 
thing beyond being waxed over. The bud is then allowed to remain 
dormant until the following spring. 

Mr. Pennington of Vacaville has been very successful in bud- 
ding by cutting buds in the regular shield form, about lj4 inches 
long, cut from branches ^ to ^ inch in diameter, so as to get wide 
buds with but little wood left in them. He also prefers to have 
stocks large, and considers a stock 1^ inches in diameter not too 
large. He uses ordinary budding twine for tying, but does not use 
wax to cover the incisions. He says it is best to put off budding as 
late as it is possible, to get a good flow of sap, as then the weather is 
likely to be cooler, which is an important factor, and the growing 
season is about finished, which will allow the twine to be left in 
place all winter, which he considers advisable. 

Buds are more apt to succeed when pushed upward from the 
cross-cut than downward from it. The cuts would then be an 
inverted "T." No preparation of the budding wood is made, except 
that mature buds are taken. About 90 per cent of the buds placed 
are said to grow. 

Grafting the Walnut. — Grafting into black walnut seedling root 
can also be well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the root 
stump, as described for grafting into grape-vine stumps in Chapter 
XXVI. In the case of the walnut, close binding with a wax band is 
desirable. 

Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or 
grafting. If by budding, the large limbs are cut back in the winter, 
and in autumn following, buds are put in, as just described, on as 
many of the new shoots as may be desired. 

In grafting, the common cleft graft is used with a degree of 
success particularly when the split is not made through the pitch, 
but at one side; the scion should be whittled so as to show as little 
pith as possible. This is done by cutting down to a point at one 
side and not in the center of the scion. Care should be taken to 
cover all exposed surfaces. 

Grafting over is desirable either for substituting a better variety 
of English walnut, or for working over a California black walnut into 
an English variety, and as much attention is now being paid to 



^■^Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

blight resistant, interest is sharpened in grafting methods. Mr. 
J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, who has looked into the subject deeply and 
worked over many old trees gives the following practical sugges- 
tions on this work : 




Walnut grafting by modified cleft graft. 

If the trees are from three to five inches in diameter they may be cut off 
at about four feet above the ground and below the branches, then four or five 
scions may be placed in one stock, or three or four of the branches may be cut 
back to within lo to 24 inches of the trunk and two to three scions placed in 
each. All the other branches should be removed from the trunk. 

Old trees of from 12 to 20 years should have the branches cut at places 
where they are from three to six inches in diameter, and from five to eight 
stubs left, which will be from three to six feet in length and should have as 
many as six scions in the large stubs, the other branches being removed before 
the scions are put in place. 

In sawing large branches it is necessary to make two cuts, the first being 
some distance above or outside the final cut, to prevent splitting the stub, or the 
trunk, when the severed part falls. 

The scions should always be of solid, mature wood, that is, with as small 
pith as can be had readily, and must have good living buds. Each scion should 
be about one-quarter inch in diameter and have at least two buds. The growth 
having buds close together is best, as shorter scions can be used. 

To receive the scions use a heavy butcher knife and mallet to split the stubs, 
placing the knife across the stub as if a chip one-half to five-eighths-inch thick 
was to be taken off. Then depress the handle of the knife to an angle of 30 to 
45 degrees and split the edge down to 2^/^ to 3 inches, allowing the knife to 
reach the farther side of the stub, but not making the split entirely across the 
stub. Open the cleft with an iron wedge J/2 to 5^-inch wide and thickest on one 
edge, placing the thickest edge toward the outside. 



GRAFTING WALNUTS 



517 



Trim the cleft in the stub with a sharp knife so it will be smooth. Then 
cut the scion so as to fit perfectly and place it so the inner bark (tne cambium 
layer) of both will be on the same line, or at least will cross twice, then remove 
the wedge and put hot wax over all the cuts on both stock and scion at once. 

The scions should be examined frequently and any excessive flow of sap 
wiped off, and the stub re-covered with wax as soon as dry. Excessive flow 
of sap for several weeks will cause the loss of the scions, as the callus can 
not form in water. This may be controlled by boring one-fourth inch holes 
in the body of the tree near the ground. Three or four holes four inches deep 
will be sufficient to control the flow of the largest trees. No damage is done 
to the body of the tree, as the holes soon grow over. 





Side graft made with a saw-cut. 

Enlargement can be prevented by slitting the bark below it. 



The last two wax formulas on page 85 are largely used in wal- 
nut grafting. For grafting in the stems of seedlings or in the 
smaller branches of young trees a side graft as described on page 
87 is successfully used as are also several styles of cleft grafting. 
One which js used by Mr. R. Wiltz and others at San Jose consist 
in splitting a short stub of a small branch which has been cut about 
four inches from its attachment to a larger branch of stem. In this 
case the split can only extend to the closely knit wood in the crotch 
and the scion is pushed down strongly to the bottom of such a split 
and it is held tightly. The two pieces of the deep split are not cut 
away but are allowed to protect the short scion which is between 
them and if buds start on these pieces they are allowed to grow a 
little to keep the stock from dying back. When the scion starts 
well they are removed. 

A method of side grafting (so called because the stock is not cut 
across but a cleft made in the side of it) has been very successfully 
practiced by Mr. Weinshank, of Whittier, both with nursery seed- 
lings and on branches of large trees. His work has shown eighty 



518 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



to ninety per cent successful in the nursery and even more on 
branches of large trees. The following is a condensed description 
of the method : 

The scion is prepared as for a whip graft (page 87), cutting a 
cross obliquely and making another cut right straight down with 
the grain in the scion. Then, instead of cutting the stock completely 
across like the scion, just simply make a little cut on the side. Do 
not cut into the pith of the wood at all. Then, place the two 
together by pushing the tongue of the scion (made by the cut on 
its shorter side) into the lip cut in the stock; tie with a string, and 
wax over. The same method on larger trees is performed exactly 
in the same way, except that the lip of course on the larger limbs, 
which are three or four inches through, would be considerably 
larger, and the scion instead of being placed directly in the middle 
of the lip, or in the center, would be placed on the side so as to have 




Split Grafting the Walnut by Mr. Geo. Payne, of Santa Clara. 



PLANTING THE WALNUT 



519 



the cambium of the scion connecting with the cambium on the stock 
at least on one side. Three or four, or sometimes five scions are put 
on a large limb, and in most cases three or four scions would grow. 
After the scion has reached a certain stage of growth, this string will 
commence to bind, and must be cut down right over where the 
scion is. The wax on either side still tend to hold the string, but 
as the wood gradually grows, the strings will draw apart, and it 
will not bind it as it would if the strins: was not cut. 




One-year Franquette Graft on one-year Selected 
Hybrid Root. 

Planting Walnut Orchards. — There is much difference in prac- 
tice in planting out walnut trees in permanent place. Some advo- 
cate the use of trees two or three years from the seed, getting as 
much of the tap-root as possible; others allow the tree to remain 
in nursery until it throws out laterals, which is usually done the 
fourth or fifth year. Two-y-ear-old trees are generally preferred, 
but walnut trees of many times that age can be successfully trans- 
planted if the work is carefully done. Walnut trees are usually set 
forty feet in squares, though some give the large-growing varieties 
fifty feet. Planting in hexagonals at forty-five feet distance gives 



520 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




A thrifty young English Walnut. 



very satisfactory results. Some growers plant in squares at thirty 
feet distance, intending to remove alternate trees as they crowd 
each other, first cutting back, for a time, the trees which are finally 
to be removed. 

Intercultures with the Walnuts. — In the southern walnut 
regions it is common to grow beans, squashes, etc., between the 
rows of trees until the latter reach bearing age ; root crops Avhich 
attract gophers should be avoided. Inter-planting of smaller, early- 
fruiting trees is also practiced to a considerable extent. 

Pruning the Walnut. — The walnut is usually headed higher than 
ordinary orchard trees, but preference is now given to starting the 
first branch at about four feet from the ground instead of six feet as 
formerly. All the pruning needed is in shaping the tree as described 
for the fig. Upward trend of the branches should be secured, some- 
times by cutting out the shoots which grow downward, sometimes 
by tying them up for a time to the central stem until they are stilT 



HARVESTING WALNUTS ^21 

enough to retain this position. Placing branches on the stem 
according to the principles advanced in Chapter XII, should be 
borne in mind. The stem should be protected from sunburn until 
the foliage accomplishes this. Whenever shoots are killed back by 
sunburn or by frost, they should be cut off cleanly below the black 
mark which shows how far the injury has extended. If this is done, 
the die-back down the branch is usually prevented. 

Bloom and Bearing of the Walnut. — The walnut has its stam- 
inate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same 
tree. Successful fruiting depends upon the appearance of these two 
forms of bloom, without too great interval of time, and although 
there seems to be quite a retention of vitality, the lack of bearing of 
some varieties has been found to be due to the fact that the catkins 
disappear too long before the pistillate bloom was sufficiently de- 
veloped to receive the pollen. 

The bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety. Some 
of the French varieties are very precocious and have borne fruit in 
nursery row at two and three years old, but the pistillate blooms 
were then fertilized from catkins growing on older trees. The 
practical bearing age of the seedling English walnut in this State 
may be rated at six to eight years, according to the variety. Trees 
grafted with scions from bearing trees fruit much sooner. 

Harvesting Walnuts. — Gathering walnuts is done in different 
ways ; some gather them from the ground at intervals during the 
months of September and October; others use poles and clean the 
trees at one operation ; some go over the ground three times ; first, 
picking up what have fallen; second, picking up what liave fallen 
and striking the limbs lightly to dislodge others which are ripest; 
third, picking up again and then knocking off all that remain on the 
trees. In this way gathering lasts a month or six weeks. Walnuts, 
after gathering, are usually treated as described by F. E. Kellogg, 
of Santa Barbara County : 

As fast as gathered the nuts are placed in slat-bottomed trays, 6x3 feet, by 
six inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, being thoroughly shaken up once 
or twice a day. If the weather is very hot, they should be dried in the shade. 
When the nuts are dry they are passed through an inclined revolving grader, 
making about twelve revolutions per minute, having a one-inch mesh wire 
screen, and all that fall through this are called "seconds." The lower end of 
the grader dips into a vat of water, thoroughly wetting the nuts and washing 
them to a certain extent — entirely sufficient for paper shells and soft shells, 
and usually enough for hard shells. A system of buckets attached to the drum 
of the grader then elevates the nuts to a chute, which discharges them into a 
large box 4x4x8 feet high, with an inclined slat bottom two and one-half feet 
above the ground. While in this box, they are subjected to the fumes of 
sulphur for twenty to thirty minues for the purpose of improving the color. 
The second grade walnuts are also put through the washing and sulphuring 
process. The nuts are next drawn off from the bleachers into the drying trays, 
piled one on top of the other, to prevent the sun from shining directly on 
the nuts, and remain there for ten or twelve hours, until the nuts are thor- 
oughly dried off. The trays are then emptied into a hopper, from which the 



522 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



nuts are drawn off into bags containing something over one hundred pounds 
each; the bags are securely sewed up and stamped with the producer's brand, 
and the nuts are ready for shipment. 

Col. A. S. Heath, of Carpinteria, uses a moist bleach and a drier 
afterward, as follows : 

When the nuts leave the rotary washer they are entirely free of hulls and 
clean. They are taken to the bleaching boxes, and here subjected to the very 
minimum amount of sulphur necessary, and cold steam, being in the bleachers 
about one hour. From the bleachers they are taken to the steam drier. In 
the drier are lOO drawers, each capable of holding 40 to 50 pounds of walnuts. 
These drawers have wire bottoms to allow the heat to pass through them. In 
the basement beneath the drier Mr. Heath has some modern furnaces con- 
structed, and during the course of the drying about 130 degrees of heat is 
maintained. The nuts are kept under this heat for eight hours. During the 
drying it is possible to watch the progress by pulling out drawers for inspection. 

Dipping Instead of Sulphuring. — Sulphuring often injures the 
flavor of the kernel and dipping is coming into wide use. The fol- 
lowing formula has been furnished to growers by the University 
Experiment Station : 

Six pounds bleaching powder (also called chloride of lime), twelve pounds 
sal-soda, fifty gallons water. Dissolve the bleaching powder in about four gal- 
lons of water, stirring till dissolved. Dissolve the sal-soda in about four gallons 
of water. Add one solution to the other and stir well; let the carbonate of 
lime settle to the bottom and draw off the clear liquor and add water to make 
, a total of fifty gallons. Put the nuts in large dipping box or lath crate, immerse 
in the fluid, and then add one and one-fourth pounds of fifty per cent sulphuric 
acid and agitate by raising and lowering the dipping box. The bleach should 
be reached in five to ten seconds, and the nuts are then washed in clear water 
and put out to dry. Of course to employ this process cheaply, specially con- 
trived dipping appliances are used. The same liquor can be used with new 
batches of nuts so long as the proper effect is produced, and small additions 
of acid will prolong the efficiency of the liquor. 

Since the foregoing method was published certain California 
courts have decided that the process is covered by a patent pre- 
viously issued and controlled by the Anderson-Barngrover Co., of 
San Jose, who demand a royalty for its use. The walnut growers 
employed Prof. Stabler, of the University of Southern California, in 
Los Angeles, to devise a new process in the public interest. His 
early results indicate that by running an electric current through a 
four per cent solution of common salt (four pounds of salt to one 
hundred pounds of water) the chlorine is set free from the soda 
and becomes available for bleaching. It is possible also that the 
electric current may exert bleaching action of its own. 

Varieties of the Walnut. — Of walnuts of California origin there 
are two classes, which are called "hard" and "soft" shell, but the 
accepted commercial product is largel}'- composed of the soft-shell 
class. Several varieties of French walnuts are now being widely 
distributed. An attempt will be made to give some of the dis- 
tinctive points of each variety mentioned : 



VARIETIES OP ENGLISH WALNUT 



523 



Common English Walnut; Los Angeles Nut, etc. — This is the ordinary 
English walnut of commerce. It was planted at an early day in Los Angeles 
comity, but is now largely replaced by the Improved Soft Shell. 

Santa Barbara Soft Shell; Sexton's Soft Shell. — Originated by Joseph Sex- 
ton, who gives this account of its origin and characteristics : "The winter of 
1867 I bought in San Francisco a large sack of English walnuts. I raised about 
one thousand trees that season, and planted two hundred of them the following 
spring, in orchard form, at Goleta. Sixty of them proved to be the soft-shell 
variety. The soft shell is a little later in starting in the spring than the com- 
mon nut, and blooms about ten days later. It commences to fruit at six years 
old from the seed, and some have been known to fruit as young as the fourth 
year. The hard shell commences to fruit about the ninth year, and bears full 
crops alternate years. The soft shell is not as strong a grower as the other 
walnut; it being so prolific, retards its growth. It is a superior nut; the kernel 
is white. The shell is thin, rendering them easily broken by the hand, at the 
same time strong enough to bear transportation to any part of the United 
States." 

Ford's Improved Soft Shell. — G. W. Ford, of Santa Ana, propagated an "Im- 
proved Soft Shell," gained by selection from the variety of Joseph Sexton, 
which has been largely planted. 

Santa Rosa. — A seedling by Luther Burbank, which has been distributed 
quite widely; but by variation in its seedling, its character is somewhat ill- 
defmed and the name is applied to several types, some of which are less desirable 
than the one receiving the name. 

Proeparturiens. — Introduced in California in 1871, by the late Felix Gillet, 
of Nevada City, and afterward by other parties, and widely distributed. Its 
chief characteristic, as its name indicates, is early bearing. It blooms from two 
to four weeks later than the common Los Angeles seedling; it shows both 
kinds of bloom simultaneously, and has the characteristics of ripening its wood 
well, and is a good nut, but it has been little planted recently because of its 
disposition to run to small sizes. 

Mayette. — This variety chiefly constitutes the imported Grenoble walnuts. 
It is large, roundish, with a broad ba-se, on which the nut will sit up; shell thin 
and white; kernel full and rich; a good bearer and late bloomer; local Mayette 
seedlings are being named; one is the "San Jose," by R. Wiltz, of San Jose — a 
fine nut, believed to be blight resistant. 

Concord. — Seedling of Cluster : of the Mayette type, grown by Messrs. 
Westgate and Hutchinson of Concord from seedling tree by Felix Gillet. Intro- 
duced by Mr. Leonard Coates in 1908. Claimed to be blight resistant. 

Franquette. — This French variety has risen to great favor and has been 
largely planted upon the successful experience of Mrs. Emily M. Vrooman, of 
Santa Rosa, and the extensive effort at its distribution by the Oregon Nursery 
Co., of Salem, Ore. It is a large, elongate-oval nut with shell rather thick 
and kernel of high quality. It is a late bloomer, and escapes blight to a certain 
extent. 

Bijou Seedlings. — Several of these are being grown. Willson's Wonder, 
introduced by F. C. Willson, of Santa Clara, is a large, smooth, desirable nut, 
and the tree is reported an early and prolific bearer. 

Other French Varieties. — ^^Other French varieties introduced by Mr. Gillet 
and others include the following: The Cluster, which fruits, as its name' indi- 
cates, in long bunches, sometimes as many as fifteen in a bunch ; otherwise the 
tree resembles the common English walnut. The Parisienne is a beautiful variety, 
the nut large, broad, and shapely; the tree blooms very late. All the foregoing 
varieties and the Franquette, Serotina, Barthere Mesange, Gant and Chaberte, 
were introduced by Mr. Gillet in 1871. 

Kaghasi. — A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for several 
years by the late James Shinn, of Niles, who described it as follows: "Very 



524 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



much larger than the ordinary kinds, and thinner shelled. The tree is late 
in putting out leaves and blossoms, and is, therefore, especially good for places 
that are in danger of late frosts." 

Japanese Walnut; Juglans Sieboldiana. — This species, native of the north 
of Japan, was introduced to California about i860, and a tree grown from seed 
planted about that time is growing at the Tower House, in Shasta county. 
Recently the good points of the tree have been more widely recognized. The 
following excellent description is by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa : "This 
species is found growing wild in the mountains of northern Japan, and is, 
without doubt, as hardy as an oak. The leaves are of immense size, and a 
charming shade of green. The nuts, which are produced in extreme abundance, 
grow in clusters of fifteen or twenty, have a shell thicker than the English 
walnut, but not as thick as the black walnut, very much resembling pecan nuts. 
The meat is sweet, of the very best quality, flavor like butternut, but less oily, 
and much superior. The trees grow with great vigor, assume a very handsome 
form, need no pruning, mature early, bear young, and are more regular and 
productive than the English walnut." The nut has an exceedingly hard shell and 
does not rate commercially with the popular varieties of the English walnut. 



NEW CALIFORNIA VARIETIES 

Since the walnut blight invaded the commercial orchards and 
resisted all remedies tried against it, great interest has arisen in 
particular trees which bore well in spite of the disease. As Cali- 
fornia has such a large acreage of seedling trees there was a full 
opportunity for the full manifestation of such resistance and a wide 
field in which to exercise the art of selection. The result is that 
many trees were found which are profitable even when the blight is 
worst, and such trees are being given distinct varietal names. The 
progress of this work should be watched in the publications of the 
University Experiment Station at Berkeley, for the experts at its 
branch laboratory and trial grounds in the walnut region of Southern 
California, at Whittier, Los Angeles county, are largely engaged in 
this work. Individual growers are alert at selection within their 
own orchards and the prospect is that a general escape from the 
blight and the establishment in our local pomology of a group of 
especially desirable varieties will ere long be attained. 



PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
FRUIT CANNING, CRYSTALLIZING, AND DRYING 

The preservation of fruit in various ways for home use and 
distant shipment, is one of the leading industries of CaHfornia, 
employing a large amount of capital and labor, and distributing a 
vast amount of money among our people. These facts can be best 
emphasized by statements of the product of 1906, in the leading 
methods, of preservation, by canning and drying. 

Canned Fruit Product of 1908. 



Cases. 

Table fruits, 2i/^-lb. cans, 24 per case 4,227,248 

Pie fruits, 1-gal. cans, 12 per case 507,215 

Total, 113,631,512 21/^ -lb. cans, or 4,734,663 



The relative use of different fruits is as follows 



Cases. 

Apples 37,700 

Apricots 1,161,250 

Cherries, black 40,725 

Cherries, white 101,700 

Figs 1,052 

Grapes 45,545 

Nectarines 1,673 

Pears 640,550 

Peaches, freestone 975,350 

Peaches, clingstone 1,327,610 

Plums 239,825 

Quinces ; 65 

Strawberries 5,780 

Raspberries 5,950 

Blackberries 87,550 

Loganberries 2,380 

Currants 138 

Gooseberries 70 



525 



526 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



THE CANNING INDUSTRY 

California stands first in the United States in the value of canned 
and dried fruits produced and in the amount of money as wages paid 
for labor in fruit canning and curing establishments. In point of 
capital invested therein California is credited by the United States 
census office in 1905 with a total of ten and one quarter million 
dollars; thus standing second only to New York, which has ten 
and one half millions. The style and capacity of the establishments 
is characteristically Californian because California's ten millions 
are invested in 184 concerns, while New York has 565 concerns; 
only a quarter of a million more value in three times as many 
outfits. 

Fruit canning began in California about fifty years ago, but dur- 
ing the last three decades has attained its greatness, and is still 
promising much wider extension. The process is simple, and yet 
is attended at every point, from the purchase of the fruit to the 
sale of the product, with operations which require experience, wis- 
dom, and good judgment. It will be obviously impossible to 
give in print a guide to the pursuit of such an industry. The prin- 
ciples involved in the process of commercial canning are, of course, 
the same as rule in the old kitchen processes, but to secure uniform- 
ity and cheapness of product a vast number of manipulations and 
labor-saving appliances have been devised. These begin with the 
manufacture of cans and attend the product to the end, and the 
realization of the commercial and uniform production which they 
assure involves the employment of large capital and the keenest 
business ability. The canning interest has, therefore, segregated 
itself more and more widely from the growing interest. Orchard 
canning on a small scale which was once thought feasible has passed 
out of sight except as it is seen to lie in the foundations of a few 
of the smaller canneries which have been built upon it. It seems 
clear now that as a rule the fruit grower's duty to the canning 
interest ceases with the production of acceptable fruit unless indi- 
viduals or associations can command capital enough to enter the 
field on equal vantage with the large commercial canneries. 
Capital is flowing toward the business ; the field for the product 
seems to be constantly expanding, and canning centers are multi- 
plying throughout the State wherever ample supplies of good fruits 
and vegetables are available. 

Varieties for Canning. — The table previously given showing the 
fruits which enter in various amounts into the canned product gives 
a general idea of what fruits should be planted to minister to the 
canner's demand. As to varieties, it is not easy to make a general 
prescription, because the choice differs somewhat with different 
localities. It is a good idea for the new planter to consult with, 
owners of adjacent bearing orchards and to secure from the nearest 
canneries lists of varieties which are acceptable to them. 



CANDIED OR GLACE FRUITS 527 

CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS 

Progress is being continually made in the production of candied, 
crystallized, or glace fruits, but the product is not a large one. 
Special establishments are now doing this work in Los Angeles, 
San Jose, and San Francisco. They have processes which are the 
result of considerable experimentation, and they do not make them 
public. To others the way lies open to similar experimentation. 
The general theory and an outline of practice as given by J. J. 
Pratt, an experienced processor, is as follows : 

The theory is to extract the juice from the fruit, and replace it with sugar 
syrup, which, upon hardening, preserves the fruit from decay, and at the same 
time retains the natural shape of the fruit. All kinds of fruit are capable of 
being preserved under this process. Though the method is very simple, there is 
a certain skill required that is acquired only by practice. The several successive 
steps in the process are about as follows : 

First, the same care in selecting and grading the fruit should be taken as 
for canning; that is, the fruit should all be of one size, and as near the same 
ripeness as possible. The exact degree of ripeness is of great importance, 
which is at that stage when fruit is best for canning; peaches, pears, etc., are 
pared and cut in halves, as for canning; plums, cherries, are., are pitted. The 
fruit, having thus been carefully prepared, is put into a basket, or a bucket 
with a perforated bottom, and immersed in boiling water. The object of this 
is to dilute and extract the juice of the fruit. The length of time the fruit 
is immersed is the most important part of the process. If left too long, it is 
overcooked, and becomes soft; if not immersed long enough, the Juice is not 
sufficiently extracted, which prevents a perfect absorption of the sugar. 

After the fruit has been thus scalded and allowed to cool, it can again be 
assorted as to softness. The next step is the syrup, which is made of white 
sugar and water. The softer the fruit, the heavier the syrup required. Ordi- 
narily about seventy degrees, Balling's saccharometer, is about the proper weight 
for the syrup. 

The fruit is then placed in earthen pans, and covered with the syrup, where 
it is left to remain about a week. The sugar enters the fruit and displaces 
what juice remained after the scalding process. 

The fruit now requires careful watching, as fermentation will soon take 
place, and when this has reached a certain stage, the fruit and syrup are heated 
to a boiling degree, which checks the fermentation. This heating process should 
be repeated as often as necessary for about six weeks. 

The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, and washed in clean water, and 
it is then ready to be either glaced or crystallized, as the operator may wish. 
If glaced, the fruit is dipped in thick sugar syrup and left to harden quickly in 
the open air. If it is to be crystallized, dip in the same kind of syrup, but 
allow to cool and harden slowly, thus causing the sugar which covers the fruit 
to crystallize. The fruit is now ready for boxing and shipping. Fruit thus 
prepared will keep in any climate and stand transportation. 

Thus far the crystallized fruit produced in California has sold 
well. There is a considerable importation of French fruit to the 
United States, which may be displaced by the California product, 
and the business commends itself to those who have ingenuity, 
patience, and capital enough to enable them to experiment and wait 
for future success. The California producer has the advantage of . 
an abundance of very fine fruit at a low price, but he carries a handi- 
cap in the high cost of transportation and of labor. 



528 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUIT INDUSTRY 



A special census of the fruit-preserving manufactures of the 
United States in 1905 shows not only that California stands first 
in the dried fruit industry, but that the product (excluding raisins) 
was in that year valued at about fourteen million dollars and was 
over eighty-eight per cent of the whole national product. An 
adjacent tabulation compiled from the records of the California 
State Board of Trade gives interesting details of this product for a 
number of years. 

As suggested on page 21 it is the function of the sunshine and 
dry air of California not only to bring vigorous growth to the tree 
and vine and carry the fruit of both to fulness of size, beauty and 
quality, but to continue its beneficent action until the fruit, which 
is not required by the trade in fresh ripeness, is given imperishable 
form, in which its beauty, flavors, aromas and nutritive qualities 
remain available to delight and nourish mankind until the following 
year's sunshine wins from the earth another supply of fresh ripe- 
ness. There are many parts of the earth where good fruit is grown : 
there are few where conditions producing such fruit continue to 
accomplish its preservation, as they do in California, and this 
climatic endowment of the State yields an annual income of some- 
thing like twenty millions of dollars, as the years run. 

Product of California Cured Fruits in Tons — 1900 to 1908. 



Year 


Peaches Apricots Apples 


Pears 


Plums 


Nec- 


Grapes Figs 


Prunes 


Raisins 














tarines 








1900 


17,170 


14,000 


3,150 


7,275 


1,950 


435 


240 


2,000 


87,000 


47,167 


1901 


14,755 


7,776 


3,225 


3,290 


1,725 


317 


180 


3,260 


40,000 


37,125 


1902 


25,210 


18,762 


4,875 


2,625 


1,280 


455 


188 


3,625 


98,500 


54,375 


1903 


16,075 


10,500 


1,800 


2,325 


1,435 


317 


205 


3,000 


82,500 


60,000 


1904 


11,500 


88,500 


1,500 


1,750 


1,150 


210 


170 


2,850 


67,500 


37,500 


1905 


17,500 


19,250 


3,250 


1,750 


930 


185 


193 


3,625 


37,500 


43,750 


1906 


11,250 


3,250 


2,750 


3,500 


1,100 


170 


200 


3,375 


90,000 


47,500 


1907 


12,000 


1,500 


1,500 


500 


750 


137 


188 


3,000 


40,000 


60,000 


1908 


22,500 


19,000 


3,000 


1,200 


1,000 


350 

2,576 
286 


1,500 

3,064 

341 


3,000 

27,735 

3,082 


25,000 


60,000 


Totals.. . 


147,960 


102,538 


25,050 


24,215 
2,691 


11,320 
1,257 


568,000 


447,417 


Averages 


16,440 


11,393 


2,772 


63,111 


49,735 



In connection with this notable factor of our horticultural en- 
dowment, certain facts of its utilization and its significance should 
be clearly understood not only by those who actually employ it in 
their business, but by those who desire to properly appreciate the 
industrial resources of the State. 

First. Cured fruits in California are a primary and not a second- 
ary or by-product. It is true, of course, that curing fruit does, to 



CURED FRUIT NOT A BY-PRODUCT 



529 



a limited extent, save from loss fruit which shippers and canners are 
not at the time paying profitable prices for, and it is true also that 
the recourse to curing frees growers from helpless dependence upon 
fresh fruit buyers. But this does not mean that curing is a way 
of getting something from refuse fruit, not suited for other purposes. 
It should be taken as evidence that, for the most part, grades of 
fruit which are cured are the same which are also available for 
higher uses when prices are right. It is very important in many 
ways to have it clearly understood that, except to an insignificant 
extent, California fruit drying is not undertaken to save wastes or 
to get something from fruit which is not suited to higher uses. 

Second. As our cured fruits are a primary and not a by-product, 
it becomes intelligible why such free investment is made in acres of 
well-made trays; in tramways and turntables for their movement 
from the shelter of convenient cutting or dipping and spreading 
houses; in capacious apartments and mechanical devices for giving 
the cut fruit its bath in sulphur fumes to preserve natural colors and 
to prevent fermentation and insect invasion; in the carefully pre- 
pared drying floors; in well-fitted packing houses. Such investment 
has reached millions of dollars in the aggregate, and the standing of 
cured fruits as primary products is the justification of such outlay. 

Third. The provision of such equipment is not alone evidence 
of the standing of the industry; it constitutes an obligation upon 
producers to put out a product which shall be true to its opportunity 
as a primary product, and not merely a makeshift to prevent loss or 
waste. Thirty years ago California dried fruit was a makeshift, and 
a disgracefully poor one. As enterprise and investment proceeded 
it was soon seen that style and quality alone could requite them. 
Next it was discerned that fruit for curing, to command profitable 
prices, must be as good as fruit for any other high purpose, as has 
been suggested. It was then believed that to secure handsome 
cured fruit which should only be relieved of its excess of water and 
still retain color, flavor and winning beauty, could only be produced 
in machine-evaporators with artificial heat, and a few years were 
given to invention, purchase and rejection of all such devices except 
as occasional refuges when the California climate forgets itself. 
When the demonstration came that with proper pre-treatment 
California sunshine and dry air would produce notably fine evap- 
orated fruits without houses and furnaces, cured fruits entered upon 
their career as primary products, and planting to produce them 
began. 

Fourth. The obligations upon producers, to make their output 
worthy of such standing, extend to the whole process of growing 
and curing. The fruit must be well grown, and fruit for curing 
should have size and quality which make it first class for other pur- 



530 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



poses, with the added excellence of being somewhat more mature, 
because it is not required to stand hauling and shipment. It should, 
however, be carefully handled to escape bruising, because discolora- 
tions are blemishes. It must be cleanly cut for removal of pit or 
core, because trimness, neatness and shapeliness are all essential 
to beauty. Before it reaches exposure to the protecting fumes of 
sulphur, it must be often saved from darkening by handling in 
water, when the nature of the fruit is such as to require it. It must 
be carefully and evenly spread upon the trays, especially if it be a 
cut fruit, so that no interference can prevent each piece from reach- 
ing its best estate. Sulphuring must be adequate, and yet not ex- 
cessive, for sulphuring is a protecting and not a resurrecting pro- 
cess ; it is not to improve bad fruit, but to keep good fruit from 
becoming bad. The fruit must be sufficiently dried and yet not 
over-dried, and during the process must be protected from dust 
by the situation and character of the ground used, even if such pro- 
tection costs trouble and outlay. 

Although the sun drying of fruit may be a simple process, so 
many little arts, methods and appliances are continually being intro- 
duced to facilitate work or improve the product, that one can learn 
much by visiting the different fruit regions during the drying sea- 
son. Such a course is commended to growers who contemplate 
large drying operations, for suggestions of great economic import- 
ance can be secured. The notes of practice which can be given in 
this connection must be brief and general. 



& 



I ' I.I I r ^ 

Cross-section of drying trays. 

Trays for Drying. — The greater part of the fruit, including 
raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great 
variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made 
of one-half-inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet long, 
the boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat on 
each end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow 
piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus 
stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A cross-section 
of such a tray is shown at A. 

A large tray which is used by some growers is four feet square, 
and is made of slats three-eighths of an inch thick, and one and a 
half inches wide, the slats being nailed to three cross slats three- 
eighths of an inch thick and three inches wide, and the ends nailed 



ARRANGEMENTS FOR FRUIT DRYING 



531 



to a narrow strip one-half inch thick by three-quarters of an inch 
wide on the other side. A cross-section of this tray is shown at B. 
Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways and 
trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays. 
three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely employed 
These tramways lead from the cutting sheds to the sulphur boxes 
and thence to various parts of the large drying grounds, making it 
possible to handle large amounts of fruit at a minimum cost. 

Protecting Fruit from Dew. — In the interior there is seldom any 
deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there are earl}' 
rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is then protected 
by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick 
cleats serve a good purpose. In dewy regions the trays are piled at 
night, or cloth or paper is sometimes stretched over the fruit, thus 
reducing the discoloration resulting from deposits of moisture upon 
it. 

Drying Floors. — For the most part the trays are laid directly on 
the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to 
support them, about twenty inches from the ground. The drying 
trays are sometimes distributed through the orchard or vineyard, 
thus drying the fruit with as little carrying as possible. Others 
clear off a large space outside the plantation and spread the trays 
where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying spaces should be 
selected at a distance from traveled roads, to prevent the deposit of 
dust on the fruit. 

Spaces used for drying are often idle the rest of the year and are 
weed-covered and unsightly during the rainy season, or are culti- 
vated for grain-hay which loosens the surface and deepens the dust. 
When one has water for irrigation it is often practicable to reduce 
dust and secure an amount of desirable feed or hay by putting the 
piece down in alfalfa. Mr. P. F. Gannon of Yolo county proceeded 
in this way. He lowered the tramway tracks to the ground level, 
and turned up a furrow on the sides to hold the water from flooding 
the adjacent ground. In the fall, after the fruit-drying was over, 
he flooded the space, which is a little over half an acre (125 by 225 
feet). Then it was disked both ways and leveled and harrowed 
and planted to alfalfa before the rains. The land was moist at the 
time and the seed came up and the plants grew more or less through 
the winter. In April he cut the first crop. Just before the space 
is needed for a drying yard, make another cutting, about June 20, 
cutting it down close and raking it clean. The yard is then ready 
for the trays and fruit. When the drying season is over the yard 
is cleared, and the space then is as clean as a clay floor, from being 
used so much. In three weeks the top of the ground is green all 
over, and before the rains come there is another cutting crop, mak- 
ing three crops a year, a ton at each cutting. So something is made 



532 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



from the space and the dust problem is solved, which means clean 
fruit and better prices. 

Grading. — It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit 
on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cutting 
is advisable. Machines are now made which accomplish this very 
cheaply and quickly.* 

Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter of some kind is always provided for the 
fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower made of 
poles and beams, upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch ; 
sometimes open-side sheds Avith boarded roof, and sometimes a 
finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the lower story open- 
ing with large doors on the north side, and with a large loft above, 
where the dried fruit can be sweated, packed, and stored for sale. 
The climate is such that almost any shelter which suits the taste 
and purse of the producer will answer the purpose. 

Sulphuring. — The regulations promulgated under the pure food 
law enacted by Congress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to 
the percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which 
was shown by producers to be destructive to their industry, and 
otherwise unwarranted and unreasonable. As a result of their pro- 
test the enforcement of such regulations was indefinitely postponed, 
pending the results of scientific investigation which began in 1908. 

From the point of view of the California producer it must be 
held that before the employment of the sulphur process, California 
cured fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They 
were of undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by con- 
tent of insect life. They had no value which would induce produc- 
tion and discernible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit 
in boxes or small "houses," with the fumes of burning sulphur, 
made it possible to preserve its natural color and flavor during the 
evaporation of its surplus moisture in the clear sunshine and dry 
air of the California summer. It also prevented souring, which 
with some fruits is otherwise not preventable in such open air dry- 
ing, and it protected the fruit from insect attack during the drying 
process. By the use of sulphur and by no other agency has it been 
possible to lift the production of cured fruits of certain kinds from 
a low-value haphazard by-product to a primary product for which 
Californians have planted orchards, constructed packing houses and 
made a name in the world's markets. 

The action of sulphuring is not alone to protect the fruit, it 
facilitates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required 
therefor. Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feas- 
ibility of curing fruits in larger pieces. The grand half-peaches, 
half-apricots, half-pears of the California cured fruits are the direct 

* See under "plums and prunes," page 538. 





633 



634 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



result of the sulphur process. Without it the fruit must be cut into 
small sections or ribbons, which in cooking break down into an 
uninviting mass, while, with the sulphuring, it is ordinary practice 
to produce the splendid halves with their natural color so preserved 
that they lie in cut glass dishes in suggestive semblance to the finest 
product of the canners, and are secured at a fraction of the cost. 
There are various contrivances for the application of sulphur 
fumes to the freshly-cut fruit. Some are small for hand carriage 
of trays; some are large and the trays are wheeled into them upon 
trucks. The most common is a bottomless cabinet about five or six 
feet high, of a width equal to the length of the tray and a depth a 
little more than the width of the tray. The cabinet has a door the 
whole width of one side, and on the sides within cleats are nailed 
so that the trays of fruit slip in like drawers into a bureau. Some 
push in the trays so that the bottom one leaves a little space at the 
back, the next a little space at the front, and so on, that the fumes 
may be forced by the draft to pass between the trays back and 
forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or dampers in the 
bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the sulphur 
burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through the 
interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight 
chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet is made of 
matched lumber. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or iron 
pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is thrown on 
paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little alcohol is put on 
the sulphur and lighted, etc. The sulphur is usually burned in a pit 
in the ground under the cabinet. The application of sulphur must 
be watchfully and carefully made, and the exposure of the fruit 
should only be long enough to accomplish the end desired. The 
exposure required differs with dififerent fruits, and with the same 
fruits in different conditions, as must be learned by experience. 

Grading and Cleaning. — After the fruit is sufficiently dried (and 
it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized except 
by the experienced touch), it is gathered from the trays into large 
boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it mto a 
revolving drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces 
together and separates it from dust, etc., which falls out through 
the apertures as the drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a 
large wire-cloth table and pick it over, grading it according to size 
and color, and at the same time the dust and small articles of foreign 
matter fall through the wire cloth. The fanning mill for cleaning 
grain may also be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with 
proper arrangement of metal screens. 

Sweating. — All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes 
moist. This action should take place before packing. To facili- 
tate it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house and 



DIPPING AND PACKING 



535 



turned occasionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to sweat in 
boxes, the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to another. 
The sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the mass. Some 
large producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls, which pre- 
serve an even temperature. No fruit should be packed before "go- 
ing through the sweat." If this is not done, discoloration and in- 
jury will result. 

Dipping Before Packing. — All fruits except prunes can be packed 
in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is not over- 
dried. Efforts should be made to take up the fruit when it is 
just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If taken 
from the trays in the heat of the day and covered so that the fruit 
moth can not reach it there is little danger of worms. The high- 
est grades of fruit are made in this way. If, however, the fruit 
has been overdried or neglected, it can be dipped in boiling water 
to kill eggs of vermin and to make the fruit a little more pliable 
for the press. The dipping should be done quickly, and the fruit 
allowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, carefully covered, 
for twenty-four hours before packing. 

Packing. — To open well, packages of dried fruit should be 
"faced." The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned 
by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be 
packed (and reference is especially made to such fruits as apri- 
cots, peaches and nectarines) by running them through a clothes' 
wringer or similar pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the 
fruit. Do not face with better fruit than the package is to contain. 
It is a fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flat- 
tened fruit (cup side down) neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill 
the box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then 
apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the box 
and put on the label or brand ; the bottom then becomes the top. 

Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is 
made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by fif- 
teen inches long, inside measurements, and it will hold twenty-five 
pounds of fruit. 



METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS 

As already intimated, it will be impossible to enter minutely 
into the operations of drying and packing on a commercial scale, 
or even to notice all the small and ingenious arts by which the work 
is facilitated. Any one who contemplates production on a large 
scale should personally visit leading regions and inform himself 
by inquiry and observation. Such an education will save mistakes, 
which may cost many times more than the expense of getting it. 



536 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



California producers are usually quite willing to show visitors the 
methods they employ. Though this is the better way of proceed- 
ing, a fcAv general hints will be given of methods with different 
fruits. 

Apples. — There seems little use of drying apples unless a very 
light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This can be 
done by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun drying in a dry region, 
or by the use of a machine evaporator in regions of greater atmos- 
pheric humidity. Recently the product has largely, increased in 
such large producing regions as the Pajaro valley, and new labor 
saving devices are being continually introduced. 

Apricots. — Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not soft 
enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat, an amber- 
colored, semitranslucent fruit is obtained. The prevailing method 
of gathering is to shake down the fruit upon sheets, but the best 
product is hand picked. Pit the fruit by a clean cut completely 
around in the suture ; do not cut part way round and then tear 
apart — a clean-cut edge is essential. Put on the trays with the 
skin down, or with the cup up, as it is sometimes described; sul- 
phur, and then put in the sun. About three days of interior-valley 
sunshine will finish the apricots. Apricots will yield on the aver- 
age one pound of dried fruit to five pounds of fresh. 

Berries and Cherries. — These fruits are only dried in the sun 
in small quantities for local sale, and ordinary farm-house meth- 
ods are employed. 

Figs.* The fruit may be carefully picked from the tree so as 
to secure the whole of the stem, when the fruit is fully ripe, as is 
known by the seaming or slight shriveling of the skin. In drying 
the common black fig from large trees, however, the fruit is gen- 
erally gathered from the ground, which is cleaned and smoothed 
before the crop ripens. In drying black figs the fruit is placed on 
trays and in most cases exposed to the sun, but some foot-hill 
growers maintain the advantage of drying in the shade. The figs 
should not be allowed to dry hard. When sufficiently cured, put 
in sweat-boxes for several days, and when ready to pack dip in 
boiling salt water, or, as is the practice of some producers, dip in 
a thin syrup, boiling hot. In either method a good, pliable condi- 
tion and handsome color are obtained. In drying white figs many 
sulphur the fruit from fifteen minutes to an hour before putting 
out on the trays. Figs which dry slowly have to be turned several 
times during the drying, and those which are apt to run juice are 
placed so that the eye is raised a little until the juice is thickened. 



*A special illustrated account of handling dried figs in California is given in "The 
Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad," by George C. Roeding, Fresno, Cal. 



CURING PEACHES AND PEARS 



537 



The white figs are also put in sweat-boxes and dipped in hot salt 
water before packing. In packing, the figs are often flattened anvl 
drawn out by the hand. Such manipulation gives the fig a lighter and 
more translucent appearance. The time required in drying figs is 
usually from five to eight or ten days, according to location and 
weather. The fruit does not cure evenly, and those which are fin- 
ished (as determined by sight and touch— to be learned by expe- 
rience) are picked from the trays, and others given more time. 




J2|J&9figg;« 



I y-'.'-V^f*^l^'MSfS?S?)smi»k. . n- 




JT! '^■^:^~'sr ,'*- -v ^^fe.^^'^! 



A California Sunshine Evaporator. 



Pears.— The dried pear product is increasing, and, as with apples, 
only a light-colored product is profitable. These are made by sul- 
phuring and sun drying, or by the use of the machine drier. For 
sun drying the fruit of medium size is halved, the large fruit being 
quartered. 

Peaches.— Peaches are sun dried in much the same way as apri- 
cots, already described. Take the fruit when it is fully ripe, but 



538 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



not mushy ; cut cleanly all around to extract the pit and put on trays 
cup side up ; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible after cut- 
ting. Peaches are dried both peeled and unpeeled, but drying with- 
out peeling is chiefly done. Peeling is done with the small paring 
machines or with a knife. Peeling with lye has been generally 
abandoned because of discoloration of the fruit after packing, al- 
though it can be successfully done by frequently changing the lye 
and using ample quantities of fresh water for rinsing after dipping. 

Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives 
and spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction with ordinary fruit knives. 
Different styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit dis- 
tricts, and individuals differ widely in their preferences. 

The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a cer- 
tain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety; some varieties 
yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than 
freestones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one 
pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy 
fruit may require six or seven pounds. 

Nectarines, — Nectarines are handled like peaches; the produc- 
tion of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skillful 
use of sulphur. 

Plums and Prunes. — Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit, 
are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product is in- 
creasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot-power 
"pitters." More rapid and capacious machines are being brought 
out by inventors. 

Prunes are one of our greatest and most promising products. 
Several varieties which dry sweet with the pit in are used in 
making prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXIII, but the pre- 
vailing variety is the Prune d'Agen. 

Prunes are gathered by shaking from the trees, usually upon 
sheets spread beneath. Several gatherings are made by light shak- 
ings which cause only the ripe specimens to fall. 

Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home- 
made contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of 
adjustable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits than 
prunes ; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bottom, 
while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles. Other 
grading devices are made with wire screens or riddles of different 
sizes of mesh. Some of them work on the principle of a fanning 
mill, three to four riddles, placed above one another, each with a 
slight incline and a spout on the side where each grade 
drops into a box. Some have a long riddle, say twelve 
feet long, with three different sizes of wire screen on it. 



THE CALIFORNIA WAY WITH PRUNES 



539 



This riddle is hung upon four ropes with an incline ; the prunes are 
thrown in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and 
fall through the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of 
screen should be small, to -let only stems and dirt through, and no 
prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to grade prunes 
after drying. There are now several excellent manufactured fruit 
graders on sale in this State. Their work is very satisfactory, 
and they have largely displaced home-made contrivances. 

The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and crack 
the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the drying pro- 
cess. In the large caldron lye is made with one pound of con- 
centrated lye to each twenty gallons of water, and kept boiling 
hot. The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized pails with 
perforated sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boiling lye for about 
a minute, or until the skin has a wrinkled appearance, then the 
basket is plunged into clean cold water to rinse off the lye. This 
rinsing water must be frequently changed, for it soon becomes very 
alkaline. Some begin with a stronger lye solution, one pound to 
ten gallons of water, claiming that a very short dip in stronger lye 
is better than long exposure in a weaker solution. After this dip- 
ping, the prunes are placed on trays. In the sun the prune dries 
sufficiently in from one to two weeks, according to the situation 
and weather. 

A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them 
to roll over needle points has also been employed to some extent. 
There are now manufactured very capacious appliances for contin- 
uous dipping, rinsing, puncturing and spreading on the trays so that 
the fruit is handled in large quantities at a minimum cost. In no 
branch of our fruit industry perhaps has there been greater advance 
in labor-saving devices than in prune handling. 

When sufficiently dried the prunes are put through the "sweat," 
which takes from several days to two or three weeks, and then 
are ready for grading, finishing, and packing. In grading, the 
prunes are separated by the use of a grader, as already described, 
into a number of grades, the largest, forty prunes to the pound, and 
so on, fifty, sixty, etc., to the smallest, which may run one hundred 
or more to the pound. Finishing consists in exposing to steam, 
in dipping in clear hot water, or hot sugar syrup, or in dipping in 
boiled juice of ripe prunes, or peaches or apples, etc. Although 
there is a great variety of materials used for "glossing" prunes by 
different producers, the prevailing practice is to rely upon hot 
water, to which pure glycerine is added at the rate of one pound 
to twenty gallons. Some growers also add a little brine (having 
first dissolved the salt and skimmed off the impurities). This final 
hot dip kills insect eggs, and the fruit, after drying ofif away from 
the access of insects, should be packed tightly in boxes. 



540 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The following explicit hints on the curing of prunes are based 
upon wide experience and observation in the Santa Clara valley : 

Be sure to allow the prunes to obtain all of the sugar they can from the 
trees by hanging until they drop of their own accord. Do not pick up until 
prunes are soft to the touch. These two rules are productive of nice black 
prunes. They may not be black when gathered in the bins but will color with 
age, without any foreign coloring matter. 

Do not keep prunes in boxes over night. They go through a sweat, and do 
not make a first quality of dried fruit, and take much longer to dry. It is better 
to let the prunes lie on the ground imder the tree for several days than to 
let the picked prunes lie in the boxes over one night. 

The dipping fluid must be kept at the boiling point and no prunes put in 
unless it is boiling. It is not a matter of how strong the lye is, but how hot 
is the water. On the trays prunes will either dry or ferment. Unless the dip 
is hot enough the prune will not immediately commence to dry, but will, in a 
few days, become a chocolate color and refuse to dry, sometimes a few on a 
tray, often half and sometimes nearly all. If the water is at the boiling point 
all through the dip, two pounds of lye to the lOO gallons of water may be 
sufficient. If the water is not boiling, ten pounds of lye to the loo gallons of 
water may be required. 

Weather conditions govern the time prunes should remain on the tray. 
Grasp a handful of prunes and give them a gentle squeeze and open the hana 
quickly, if the prunes separate they are ready to stack the trays and the fruit 
should be placed in the bin before it rattles on the trays. 

When the prunes are sufficiently dry put them in a dry place where it will 
not rain on them, but do not prevent the air from getting to them. Let the 
wind have free access until the rains set in, then close doors and make the 
house as snug as you can. In making bins, be sure the boards are dry and 
the bins well above ground, or you will have trouble. Do not let prunes 
get damaged by rain. 

For dipping before packing, some use a brine dip — about five pounds of salt 
to 100 gallons of water is about right. This salt dip can be used more safely 
for prunes than for peaches or other pitted fruit, as in some instances it has 
attracted moisture and caused mold. As to the respective results of a salt 
solution and glycerine solution, the salt seems to be a cleansing process, which 
leaves the skin of the fruit in a bright, clear condition and brings out the blue 
bloom, which is desirable. The glycerine is more of a syrupy or glossy nature, 
and on prunes that are inclined to be reddish this solution can be used to ad- 
vantage. A common method of treating prunes is to use the small prunes and 
suspend them in the steam-heated tank of the Anderson dipper, where they 
can not come in contact with the steam (which causes the skin and meat of 
the prune to turn dark), dissolve out the juice, thus forming a dip hquor, and 
this is quite extensively used. 

Raisins. — The varieties of grapes used for raisins are described 
in Chapter XXVIII. The production of raisins has reached such 
an extent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes 
employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that 
a description of them can not be attempted. Besides, an excellent 
special treatise has been written on this subject.* However, in 
beginning the commercial production of raisins, one should visit 
the raisin farms and packing-houses during the harvest. The fol- 
lowing description by T. C. White, of Fresno, gives an outline of 
practise in the vineyard : 

In Fresno picking commences about the first of September, although there 
have been seasons when it occurred as early as the 20th of August. The grapes 



CURING RAISINS 



541 



under no circumstances should be picked for raisins until they are ripe. There 
are three ways by which to ascertain this fact : First, by the color, which 
should be a light amber; second, by the taste; and third, by the saccharometer, 
which is by far the most accurate. A grape may be ripe, and not have the 
proper color, when grown entirely in the shade. The juice of the grape should 
contain at least twenty-five per cent saccharine, to produce a good raisin. 

The method of drying is with trays placed upon the ground. The almost 
entire absence of dew in our locality greatly facilitates this method. The trays 
are usually twenty-four by twenty-six inches, which hold about twenty pounds 
of fruit, and should produce from six to seven pounds of raisins. The product 
of a vineyard depends largely upon its age and favorable conditions, varying 
from two to nine tons of grapes per acre. 

The trays are distributed along the sides of the roads, from which they are 
taken by the pickers as they are needed. As the grapes are picked from the 
vines, all imperfect berries, sticks, and dead leaves are removed from the 
bunches, which are then placed upon the trays, right side up. A cluster has 
what is called a right and a wrong side, the wrong side having more of the 
stems exposed than the right side. Great care should be used in picking, so 
as to handle the bunches only by the stem. If the berries come in contact 
with the hands, some of the bloom will be removed, which will injure the 
appearance of the raisins. The trays are placed, after filling, between the vines, 
one end being elevated so that the grapes may receive the more direct rays 
of the sun. 

Too rapid drying is not desirable. The grapes are left upon the trays until 
about two-thirds dry, which, with us, will be from six to eight days. They are 
then turned. This is accomplished by placing an empty tray on top of the 
one filled with partially-dried raisins, and turning them both over. Then take 
ofif the upper or original tray, and you have the raisins turned without han- 
dling or damage. After turning, curing will proceed more rapidly, and fre- 
quently is completed in four or five days. During this time they should be 
carefully watched to prevent any from becoming too dry. When it is found 
they are dry enough, the trays are gathered and stacked one upon another as 
high as convenient for the sorting which follows. This protects them from the 
sun and prevents overdrying. Stacking should be attended to early in the 
morning, while the stems and berries are slightly moist and cool from the night 
air, as they will retain this moisture after being transferred to the sweat-boxes, 
and assist in quickening the sweating process. 

As the raisins are taken off the trays, some of the berries on the bunch 
will be dry enough and a few will not be sufficiently cured. To remove the 
moist ones would destroy the appearance of the cluster, and to leave them out 
longer would shrivel the dry ones, hence the sweat-box. The moisture is dif- 
fused through the box, some being absorbed by the dry raisins, and the stems 
also taking their share are thus rendered tough and pliable and easily manipu- 
lated when ready for packing. 

Sorting and grading require great care and judgment, and although a tedious 
process, it greatly facilitates rapid packing. The sweat-box is a little larger 
than the tray and about eight inches deep, and contains about one hundred 
and twenty-five pounds of raisins. Heavy manila paper is used in the sweat- 
boxes, one sheet being placed in the bottom, and three or four more at equal 
distance as the filling progresses. The object of the paper is to prevent the 
tangling of the stems and consequent breaking of the bunches when removed for 
packing. 

The sorters have three sweat-boxes, one for the first, second and third quali- 
ties, as the grade will justify. The bunches should be handled by the stem and 
placed carefully in the sweat-boxes to avoid breaking the stems, thereby de- 
stroying the symmetry of the clusters. Any found to be too damp are returned 
to the trays and left a day or two longer in the sun. To ascertain if the fruit 
is perfectly cured, take a raisin between the thumb and forefinger and roll it 
gently until softened, when either jelly or water will exude from the stem 
end — if water, it requires further drying. When the boxes are filled, they are 
taken to the equalizer. This should be built of brick or adobe, and as near air- 
tight as possible, but provided with windows to allow ventilation when necessary. 
The windows should have shutters to keep it dark. The filled boxes are placed 



542 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



one exactly above another to a convenient height, and should remain from ten 
to twenty days or more, when they will have passed through the sweating 
process. When the raisins are sufficiently equalized, the sweat-boxes are re- 
moved to the packing-room, which is provided with tables, presses, scales, etc. 

The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard clusters. 
Loose raisins are now being produced in increasing quantities. 
Loose Muscatels are prepared by being put through the stemmer 
and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from the stems, 
and the grader, by separating according to size, determines the 
grade. During the last few years the seeding of raisins has in- 
creased rapidly, and large establishments for this work, with very 
ingenious machinery, have been erected. Seeded raisins constitute 
a considerable portion of the product. 

A considerable quantity of dipped raisins are also made of the 
Sultana and Thompson seedless grapes and of loose or inferior 
Muscatels. A lye dip of about one pound of potash to twelve gal- 
lons of water is used, and the solution is kept boiling hot. The 
ripe fruit is dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for 
a thorough rinsing, and then placed on the trays. During warm, 
dry weather in the interior, the raisins are dried in the shade hy 
leaving the trays in piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails, 
the trays must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber 
color. 

An oil 'dip has been profitably used with Thompson's Seedless : 

One quart olive oil ; ^ pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts 
water are made into an emulsion, and then reduced with 10 gal- 
lons water in the dipping tank, adding more soda to get- lye-strength 
enough to cut the skins, and more soda has to be added from time 
to time to keep up the strength. The grapes are dipped in this 
solution and sulphured to the proper color. 

GRAPE SYRUP 

The manufacture of grape syrup, which was formerly of con- 
siderable prominence as a means of disposing of wine grapes, has 
recently received less attention because of low prices in competi- 
tion with the vast amount of syrup available for the sugar refin- 
eries. 

MACHINE EVAPORATION 

Although California summer conditions of adequate heat and 
dry air favor open-air evaporation to such an extent that nearly 
all our product of cured fruit is secured in that way, there are 
some parts of the State where artificial heat would be a safer re- 
course and there are late fruits which sometimes collide with early 
rains in a way to cause losses even in our best sun-curing regions. 





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544 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



It is interesting, therefore, to describe a machine evaporator con- 
structed upon true principles and having a capacity sufficiently large 
to encourage its use. Mr. L. W. Parsons of Campbell, Santa Clara 
county, has given most of his life to the design and construction of 
fruit evaporators, and secured patents thereupon which have ex- 
pired and are now public property. In the Pacific Rural Press of 
June 19 and 26, 1909, he gave his conclusions on the desirability 
of machine evaporation and a design for the construction of an 
evaporator which embodied all his best work in this line. The ac- 
companying drawings and description are from Mr. Parson's writ- 
ings : 

A fruit drying chamber capable of holding about two tons is about as large 
as one heater can well handle. Wire trays two feet wide by five feet long 
are as large as one strong man can conveniently handle; he might prefer them 
shorter; in fact, if the smaller tray would give a drier with sufficient capacity 
to meet the demands of the owner, he could make the trays two by four feet, 
with a narrower furnace, to correspond. Where two men are always avail- 
able, trays three by six feet have been found to work well. 

A drier five feet wide and twentj'^-four feet long, having ten trays in its 
length and twelve trays high, holds 120 trays 2 by 5 feet, or a total drying 
surface of 1,200 square feet, which at the rate of 3 pounds per foot give a 
total of 3,600 pounds at one time : that is, it would take that much gross 
weight of fruit before cutting to fill the trays. Large fruit would amount to 
more, and small fruit or culls might not go above two pounds to the foot. 

By making the drier one or two trays longer and higher, and a foot or so 
wider, the capacity may be materially increased. But if much more capacity is 
desired, it would be better to build another drier, or several of them, alongside 
of it, which would work satisfactorily. 

The fruit drying chamber rests on top of the hot air chamber, which is 
surrounded by brick or cement walls about eight inches thick, and is as long 
and wide as the fruit chamber above. The height of these walls depends on 
the size and shape of the heater enclosed by them. The furnace is a very im- 
portant factor : it must be strong, not' easily burned out, smoke-tight in all 
i-ts joints and flues, with caps or covers so placed to facilitate cleaning out 
soot and ashes. There must be room between the sides of the furnace and 
the side walls to allow for circulation of the air to be heated. 

Fresh air enters this hot air chamber through openings about a foot square 
at the bottom in front between the furnace and the side walls ; passes along 
on the sides and top of furnace and flues until it reaches the back end of the 
hot air chamber, where it passes up through an opening into the fruit chamber 
above. 

The next, and perhaps the most critical, part in the construction, is the 
sheet iron floor which covers the furnace and flues and separates them from 
the fruit chamber above. This iron floor is made of either black or galvanized 
iron, not thinner than No. 24; thicker would be better. It rests on rods or 
bars of angle or T iron stretched from wall' to wall, with ends built into the 
walls. These rods are spaced about two feet apart. The sheets of iron should 
be riveted or bolted together. The edges of this iron floor should project into 
and be imbedded in the brick walls in front and along the two side walls as 
far back as the floor goes to the other end of the drier. Cover this floor 
with an inch or so of sand or fine earth, so as to stop up all cracks. At the 
back end of drier this iron floor is cut short one foot, allowing an opening of 
one by about five feet to allow the hot air from the heater below the iron 
floor to pass up into the fruit chamber above. This floor must be made tight 
everywhere, so no hot air can possibly leak upward and scorch the fruit or the 
woodwork above. 

The brick walls should be built about eighteen inches above the iron floor, 
so that the wooden frame which rests on top will be safe from burning. 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING EVAPORATOR 545 

The furnace may be about four feet high by three feet wide, with an ash 
pit in the bottom part, and six or eight or more feet long. This will handle 
four-foot cordwood conveniently and make a liberal combustion chamber for 
the flames. It may be a cyhnder or shaped like a boiler, or have brick walls, 
with a cast iron arch on top. Or it may be a big wrought iron box made of 
quarter-inch boiler iron, braced with angle iron to prevent warping. 

A smoke pipe one foot in diameter connects with the back end of the fur- 
nace, passes horizontally to near the back end of the drier, then by a short 
elbow doubles back, coming to the front over the top of the furnace, and then, 
by an elbow, to right or left through the side brick wall to connect with the 
pipe inside of the ventilator shaft or flue. 

If the furnace is four feet high and the pipe above it one foot thick, allow 
six inches space between the top of the furnace and the pipe and between 
the pipe and the sheet-iron floor above it ; then add the eighteen inches of brick 
wall above the iron floor; we get a total height of seven and a half feet from 
the ground to top of wall. 

But only the furnace needs to be as deep as this, and it can be placed in a 
pit at one end of the drier. The brick walls back of the furnace do not need 
to go so far down by perhaps two feet. The smoke pipe leaving the furnace 
close to its top can rest on a brick lying on top of the ground, so the part of 
the heating chamber holding the long flues may be shallower, thus saving 
some expense in masonry. The top of the brick wall should be level all the 
way around and even with the floor of the house, so the operator can easily 
handle the traj^s on the upper track. Do not insert woodwork of any kind into 
the brickword. 

Lay 2x4 inch sills on top of the brick walls all around the four sides. Cut 
your upright studding of 2x4 joists six and a half feet high,' spaced two feet 
apart, and nail a 2x4 plate on top. This is for the two long sides. The ends 
of the drying chamber are to be supplied with close-fitting doors. Nail sur- 
faced matched lumber on the inner face of the studding. These boards had 
better be of redwood, so as not to gum up the trays with pitch. 

These two side walls should be perfectly straight, plumb and level and at 
equal distance apart at all points, so the trays will work true and not bind or 
slip off the tracks. Nail to these walls tracks or slides made of strips one 
and one-half inches square. Fasten to these tracks wheels, known to the hard- 
ware men as "sash rollers," one inch in diameter and spaced ten inches apart 
along the track. Cut a little notch in the edge of the track, so the wheel can 
turn freely, with the big side of the wheel upward. Put twelve of these tracks 
on each wall, spaced six inches apart, beginning six inches from the ceiling to 
the top of the first track, then six inches to top of next track, etc. One strong 
16 penny wire nail driven into each stud will hold these tracks securely. Fasten 
the wheels with screws to the track on a work bench before nailing them to 
the walls. 

Nail matched lumber on top of the plates from side to side for a ceiling. 
This wooden shell will have to be braced from the outside so it can stand 
up firmly with its load of fruit. 

The ventilator or exhaust flue should be about two by three feet inside 
and extend about twenty feet above the top of the drier. Build it against the 
side of the drier, resting on top of the brick wall, close to the front end of 
the drier. 

The smoke pipe must be carried by a suitable elbow from its position above 
the furnace through the side brick wall to a point under the center of the 
ventilator, thence up through it to the top. A sheet-iron weather cap on top 
should protect the ventilator and smoke pipe. Make the bottom of the ven^ 
tilator where smoke pipe enters, air tight to ensure good draft. Provide caps 
or covers at the elbows to facilitate cleaning out the soot. 

On the side of the drying chamber, at the bottom, cut a hole into the ven- 
tilator for the passage of the damp air from the fruit into the ventilator. This 
opening should be the shape of a right angled triangle, in such position as 
though the bottom cover of the side wall were being cut off. The bottom and 
perpendicular side of opening are to be three feet long. The lower tracks go 
past this opening to carry trays to the door. Some kind of a small guide 
rail should be placed to prevent the corners of the trays from striking against 
the edge of opening. The trays are to be one-half inch shorter than the drier 



546 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



is wide inside, so as to move freely without danger of being bound. Two 
or three rods of half-inch iron provided with screws and nuts should pass 
through from side to side of drying chamber about half way from top to 
bottom, to prevent the walls of the drier from warping or bulging, or else 
the trays will drop oflf the tracks. 

Make four sides of the trays of stuff one and a half inches square, notched 
:.t the corners of trays. Tack on No. 3 mesh galvanized wire cloth. Over 
this nail strips one inch thick by one and a half inches wide for runners to 
roll over the wheels. Nail a similar strip across the middle of the tray to 
prevent the wire cloth from sagging. From twenty-five to fifty extra trays will 
be found convenient in operating the drier. The wire cloth is two feet wide. 
Make the tray frames two feet one inch wide. With average prices for labor 
and material this drien can be built in a substantial manner for about $500. 

To Operate the Drier. — Get started right by taking all day in grad- 
ually filling the drier, so that by night time the first trays will be within a few 
hours of being finished. Start a good fire before putting in the fruit, so as 
to burn out the oily smells of the new ironwork. Use the eight lower tracks 
for the fresh fruit. Put eight trays in at a time, one tray on each of the eight 
lower tracks about every forty-five minutes, starting them at the front end 
over the furnace and pushing along. After ten lots have been so placed the 
eight lower tracks will be full. Then take out one tray from each track at the 
back end and put them in on the upper four tracks, two trays on a track, to 
be gradually pushed along from time to time, as often as fresh trays are put 
in at the front, until the machine is full and the dryest trays will be at the 
front end on the upper four tracks. The fresh, wet fruit will in this way have 
its vapor drawn out through the ventilator close by, without wetting the fruit 
which is partly dry. 

As the fruit gets dryer it is moved into dr3fer and warmer air at the back 
end. But this fresh air right from the heater below is 180 degrees hot and 
tinsafe for fruit to finish in, so it is started back on the upper tracks to finish 
in a milder temperature, with enough vapor in the air to allow tne iruit to 
finish gradually without danger of scorching, turning out the fruit in a soft and 
flexible condition, evenly cured and right in color. This process is peculiar to 
this evaporator and yields the best results in c[uality of work done. 

If fruit is rushed too fast through the drier it will get back to the front 
and top too soon and will be too wet to dry readily in the lower temperature. 

If the beginner gets caught this way, it will be better, after waiting a little, 
to take it out, and, if still too wet, carry it back to the other end and put 
in on the upper four tracks again to gradually go forward again. After a little 
experience he will learn how and when to move the fruit. 

As to variations of heat in different parts of the drier and the effects thereof, 
it may be added that the thermometer hanging in the current of air just as it 
strikes the fruit may register 190 degrees and do no harm, for the fruit at that 
end of the drier has enough moisture to save it. The air cools rapidly, and 
when it reaches the other end of the drier where the fruit on the top tracks 
is nearly dry, the temperature will be about 40 degrees cooler. This is one 
of the most valuable points in this evaporator, finishing the fruit in a lower 
temperature and yet with but little moisture in the air. 

Wood or coal fires will fluctuate in heat, and a careless operator might allow 
the temperature to get to 200 or 210 degrees, but if it does not last more than 
a few minutes, and as the fruit is not too near being finished at the exposed 
end, no harm is done. A thermometer resting on the tray at the back end 
lying between the fruit will show about 10 degrees lower temperature than when 
hanging clear in the draft at that point. 

While drying the trays should not touch the ends of the drier, but be pushed 
back about a foot and a half from the doors to allow room for free circulation 
of air at the back end of drier and down at the front end. It takes sixteen 
to twenty-four hours to dry the fruit, according to kind and size. Apples are 
dried in six to eight hours. 

The furnace may be made to use any fuel. An oil burner is the best, because 
the heat can be kept steadily at the maximum. 



PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
CALIFORNIA METHODS WITH INJURIOUS INSECTS 

The California climate, which so favors tree and vine by a long, 
mild, growing season also enables some insects to multiply much 
more rapidly than they do in wintry climes ; some having several 
distinct broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and 
destruction of plants nearly the year round. The difficulties of the 
problem of the control of injurious insects are constantly being 
increased because new pests, in spite of the most careful efforts to 
keep them outside our boundaries, occasionally find their way into 
our orchards and vineyards. Furthermore native species, feeding, 
unnoticed perhaps, upon wild growths have found, in certain in- 
stances, that cultivated plants offer to them most satisfactory food 
and then suddenly become a factor in the horticulturists' problem. 

Undoubtedly parasitic and predaceous insects preying upon the 
injurious species found in the fruit plantations are of assistance, in 
greater or lesser measure, in reducing the pests, and this service 
is being promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from 
other parts of the world. There are many of our native species of 
insects, also syrphus and ichneumon flies, lady birds, etc., that are 
valuable in this regard. Other factors also, such as untoward weath- 
er-conditions at the time of hatching, bacterial and fungous diseases 
of insects, etc., assist the horticulturist in his warfare against inju- 
rious insects. It is also a fact that California conditions have de- 
manded and favored the development of ways and means for the 
suppression of orchard and vineyard pests, and methods and ap- 
pliances have been invented which have demonstrated notable effi- 
ciency and value. 

While the literature upon the subject of insect pests in California 
is quite extensive, much of it is beyond the reach of the general 
reader. Nevertheless there are a number of publications which 
should be secured and studied by every fruit grower. These are 
the bulletins and reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station of 
the University of California, at Berkeley; of the State Board of 

*I am indebted to Mr. W. T. Clarke, assistant professor of Horticulture of the 
University of California, Berkeley, for careful revision and extension of this chapter. 

547 



548 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Horticulture, at Sacramento; and of the Bureau of Entomology of 
the United States Department of Agriculture, at Washington. A 
most useful addition to the horticulturist's library will be found in 
Kellogg's "American Insects," published by Henry Holt and Com- 
pany, New York. This excellent work of Professor Vernon Kel- 
logg) of Stanford University, is particularly valuable because of its 
California observations and point of view. Furthermore as the 
study of the pests and the invention of means for their destruc- 
tion are continually progressing one can only keep himself up 
to date and enable himself to profit by improvements, by diligent 
reading of CaHfornia periodicals devoted to practical horticulture. 

CLASSES OF INSECTS 

In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular 
way, the grouping here will be based upon the character of the 
work they do. This arrangement has been followed by other writ- 
ers and is perhaps better than attempting to group the insects which 
prey upon any single tree or plant, because injurious insects seldom 
restrict themselves to a single food plant. Therefore the group- 
ing will be as follows : 

(1) Insects destroying foliage; 

(2) Insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit ; 

(3) Insects boring into the twig, stem or root; 

(4) Insects boring into the pulp of fruits. 

INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE 

Cut Worms and Army Worms.* — These are the larvae of Noc- 
tuid moths, which often become abundant over limited areas and 
do much damage to trees and plants. Cut worms and Army worms 
are terms applied to the same insects in California. In ordinary 
years they are not present in sufficient numbers to cause much con- 
cern, and in such years they are known simply as cut worms. When 
all conditions are favorable, however, certain species develop in 
enormous numbers and having exhausted the food supply where 
they breed, they begin to migrate or march, commonly in a definite 
direction, as an army in search of new food. When they thus ap- 
pear in such large numbers and take on the migrating habit they 
are called army worms. 

Some of the caterpillars have the habit of climbing up vines and 
trees and eating off the buds in the early spring. These are called 
climbing cut worms. Others remain at or near the surface of the 

^Adapted from Bulletin 192, Agr. Exp. Station, University California, Berkeley. 



CUT WORMS AND ARMY WORMS 



549 



ground and feed by cutting off the plants at this point. They are 
more commonly found in the grass lands, but very frequently at- 
tack cultivated crops, particularly on land that was in grass the 
previous year. 




Army worm (Heliophila unipuncta). 



Of the methods used to protect trees and plants from cut worms, 
poisoned bait is probably the most common. This consists of bran 
and molasses or other sweet substance poisoned with arsenic and 
distributed in handfuls about the plants. The proportions are as 
follows : forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap molasses, and 
five pounds of arsenic. Cheap glycerine may be used to prevent 
the mixture from drying. This will be eaten by the worms in prefer- 
ence, usually, to the plants which it is desired to protect. 

Cut worms and army worms may also be captured by means of 
traps. Because of their habit of feeding at night and remaining 
concealed during the day, pieces of boards may be placed on the 
ground around the growth to be protected and these may be turned 
over during the day and the worms killed. 

In case of outbreaks of army worms the most important and 
successful means of fighting them is to keep them out of the 
orchard or vineyard entirely. This can be successfully done if they 
are discovered in time or if already in one portion they can be 
kept from spreading over the rest of the property. They travel 
in immense numbers in a definite direction, coming generally from 
an adjoining or nearby grain field. If a furrow is plowed along 
the side of the place to be protected it will effectively stop their 
progress. This furrow should be plowed as deep as possible, with 



550 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW TMEM 



the vertical side next to the field to be protected. It can be further 
trimmed with a spade, preferably cutting under slightly, making a 
smooth surface, over which few if any, of the worms will make 
their way. Above this shoulder fine pulverized earth should slope 
as abruptly upward as possible. If any of the worms succeed in 
climbing up over the smooth surface made by the spade they will 
be pretty sure to fall back as they reach this fine loose earth in an 
attempt to ascend over the projecting shoulder. Postholes should 
be dug on the straight edge of the furrow every fifteen or twenty 




Moths of cut worms. 



feet. The worms in failing to scale the vertical side of the furrov^ 
will crawl along in the bottom and fall into these holes. Here 
they may be killed by pouring in a little crude oil, or by pouring in 
a little distillate and dropping in a match, thus burning them, or 
the holes filled in and others dug. They may also be killed in the 
furrow by sprinkling them with kerosene or by pouring a strip 
of crude oil along the furrow. 

Canker Worms. — These are destructive leaf-feeding caterpillars, 
commonly known also as inch- worms, loopers or measuring worms, 
because of the peculiar looping gait by which they move about. 
The male moths are slender bodied and have broad thin wings, 
while the females are wingless, heavy-bodied creatures. 

While these caterpillars can in large measure be controlled by 
spraying with lead arsenate or Paris green, it is by far the best to 



CANKER WORMS 



551 



use the trap method of control and avoid having them upon the 
trees at all. The trap method depends for its success upon the fact 
that the wingless female moth upon emerging from her cocoon in 
the ground immediately crawls up the trunk of the nearby tree and 
places her eggs upon the twigs. By trapping the females on their 
way up into the trees no eggs can be placed near the foliage and 
the caterpillars hatching from them can do no damage. The traps 
are made thus : Take No. 16 or No. 14 wire cloth in strips six 
inches wide, draw and tack the top edge close to the trunk of the 
tree over a bandage of cloth which is put on first to make the joint 
tight. The lower edge should flare out about an inch from the tree 
all around. This trap will need rather frequent cleaning while the 
moths are active. 




Home and work of the tent caterpillar. 

Tent Caterpillars. — Several species of hairy caterpillars called 
"tent caterpillars," or "web worms," from their spinning covers of 
cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large col- 
onies ; but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web, though 



552 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



it lives in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting 
off and burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the 
colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole, or by spraying 
the foliage with lead arsenate or -Paris green. The pest can be 
reduced while pruning by carefully collecting and burning the egg 
clusters, which encircle the twig. 

Red-Humped Caterpillar. — Striped caterpillars, not hairy, but 
having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in 
clusters ; of reddish color with yellow and white lines ; a short dis- 
tance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on which 
are four black spines ; black spines are also scattered over the body, 
but smaller than those on the back. Spra)^ with lead arsenate or 
Paris green, or cut off and burn colonies. 

Caterpillar of Tussock Moth. — A conspicuous caterpillar with 
four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes 
at the front, and one at the rear of the body — see engraving. This 
leaf-eater is found on apple, pear, plum, and sometimes on other 
fruit trees, also on the walnut and oak. The caterpillars are pecu- 




The tussock-moth larva, the so-called horned caterpillar. (Somewhat 

enlarged.) 

liarly resistant to arsenical sprays and can not be successfully con- 
trolled by these. The larva spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold 
of a leaf, more commonly in crotches or rough places on the bark, 
or even on adjacent buildings or fences, and the female, after 
emerging from the cocoon, deposits her eggs upon the outside of 
it. The engravings show caterpillars and their peculiar markings. 
The insect is fortunately very freely parasitized in the egg form and 
prevented from wide injury. It can be controlled by destroying the 
egg masses during pruning, as they are white and very conspic- 
uous.* 



*See Bulletin 183, University of California, College of Ag-rieulture. 



SLUGS AND BEETLES 553 

Pear and Cherry Slug. — A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with 
the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eating 
the upper surface of the leaves but not usually making holes 
through them. The insect can be checked by throwing fine road 
dust or air-slacked lime over the tree, which cakes upon the slime 
of the worm and destroys it. On a large scale -an arsenate of lead 
or Paris green spray is best. 

Saw-Fly Worms. — There are several larvze of saw-flies which 
do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole 
leaf substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not 
slimy like the pear slug, the one infesting the pear being about half 
an inch when fully grown. Its general appearance and work are 
shown by the engravings. The most available remedy is an arsen- 
ate of lead or Paris green spray. 

Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines.f — The grape-vine is often 
seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms two 
inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, or 
spine, sometimes without. They are larvse of several species of 
Sphinx moths or hawk-moths. The worms when new hatched can 
be killed by an arsenical spray or by hand-picking. The numbers 
of worms can be reduced by killing the large moths which are 
abundant at nightfall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flowers. 
These worms are related to the other large caterpillars which feed 
on tobacco, tomatoes, etc. 

Leaf Eating Beetles. — There are many beetles, large and small, 
which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of 
arsenate of lead or Paris green, or those which drop to the ground 
when disturbed may be collected in large numbers on sheets spread 
below. 

The most notable of these because of its evil work in the cen- 
tral part of the State, and because the grub destroys the roots of 
the vine causing it to be called the "grape root worm," and the 
beetle riddles the leaves and young fruit. It is Adoxus vitis and 
a special study of it has been made by Professor H. J. Quayle, of the 
University Experiment Station, the results of which are published 
in Bulletin 195 of the station and remedies suggested. Our pictures 
will enable the reader to recognize the beetle and its work. The 
beetle is about one-fifth of an inch in length and is black or brown. 



fSee Bulletin 192, University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station. 



r-f-A CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES 
OR FRUIT 

Leaf Lice. — Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple and plum, 
are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of different 
colors, from light green to black, some individuals having wings 
and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are 
the kerosene emulsions and other mixtures which will be given 
later as summer washes for scale insects, with a spray nozzle which 
sends spray vipwards, so as to reach the under sides of the leaves. 
Very often these pests are apparently cleared out by lady-birds and 
other insects which devour them. The engraving shows the gen- 
eral form of the aphis tribe. 




Larvae of tussock-moth feeding on apple foliage and fruit. 

Thrips. — Very minute insects infesting buds, leaves and blos- 
soms of pears, prunes, cherries, peaches and many other trees and 
plants. The attack on leaves and buds causes them to wither and 
fall off. Indeed complete defoliation may follow their attack. When 
thrips infest fruit blossoms the essential parts are eaten off by the 
insects and the attacked blossom sets no fruit. Much damage is 
done by the insect and thorough investigation was pursued by the 
Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
by Mr. Dudley .F. Moulton, who in 1909 became Deputy Horticul- 
tural Commissioner of California. Mr. Moulton's publication of 



THRIPS AND VINE HOPPERS 



555 



his results* indicates that the insect is capable of control by spring 
spraying by the use of a two per cent distillate emulsion to which 
Black Leaf Tobacco Extract is added at the rate of one part of 
extract to sixty parts of emulsion. This spray can be applied with 
safety to opening buds, but should not be used on trees in full 
bloom, and its use can be resumed immediately after the blossoms 
have fallen, and later on the foliage for adults and larvae. The first 
application should properly be made when the thrips are coming 
from the ground in maximum numbers and before the cluster buds 
are too far advanced. This period in the San Jose district is early 
in March, but it of course differs for the several varieties of fruits. 
An effort should be made to kill all adults in an orchard before 
March 15, when practically all thrips are out of the ground and 
when egg-laying on the stems of leaves or bloom begins. 




Adult of the grape root-worm — greatly enlarged. 



Vine Hoppers. — Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects in- 
festing grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying rap- 
idly. The vine hopper (often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is 
the most widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the 
grape insects occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious num- 
bers, however, chiefly in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. 
It is also present in the coast counties, but rarely in sufficient num- 

*Bulletin 80,, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



556 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



bers to do much injury. Another larger species (Tettigonia atro- 
punctata) occurs in these localities and sometimes does considerable 
injury in the early part of the season. The principal injury caused 
by this insect is due to the extraction of the plant juices. These 
are sucked out by means of a sharp beak or proboscis, which is in- 
serted into the plant tissues. 

The most satisfactory method of control is in the use of a 
hopper cage to be used in the early spring when the young shoots 
of the vine are about four or five inches long. 




The vine hopper cage. 

The hopper cage, shown in an adjacent engraving, consists of a 
framework of laths over which is tacked a double layer of mos- 
quito wire netting or a single 20-mesh wire screen. The bottom 
consists of a shallow pan or tray made by turning up about an inch 
of the edges of a sheet of light galvanized iron. One entire side 
of the cage is left open, and there is a V-shaped opening in the 
tray at the bottom which allows the cage to be pushed over the 
vine. The base of the V-shaped opening in the bottom is padded 
with leather and the vine is bumped and the hoppers jarred off, 
at the same time that the cage is being swung into position. The 
sides of the cage and the tray at the bottom are smeared with crude 
oil, and the hoppers as they are jarred off are caught in the oil. 



THE GRAPE ADOXUS 



557 



If there is a breeze blowing the cage can be operated with the 
open side facing the wind and practically no hoppers will escape. 
If, however, the day is calm and warm and the hoppers are parti- 
cularly active a curtain can readily be dropped over the open side 
as the cage is pushed on to the vine, and it will prevent any from 
escaping. 

The V-shaped opening which might allow hoppers to drop to 
the ground in front of the vine can be covered with canvas, as fol- 
lows : Take two pieces of canvas about the shape of the opening 
and a little wider. Double this once on itself and between the two 
layers sew in pieces of three-fourths inch rubber tubing trans- 
versely. These are then firmly tacked on the sides of the opening 
as shown in the engraving. This will allow the cage to be pushed 
in on the vine and the flexibility of the tubing will bring the can- 
vas immediately into position again. This with the curtain in 
front, shuts off all possibility of escape. 

False Chinch-Bugs. — Small, grayish-brown insects (about one- 
eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine 




Grape leaf showing characteristic work of the adoxus beetle. 



558 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is disturbed, and 
may be caught as just described for vine hoppers. 

Grasshoppers. — These pests often invade orchard and vineyard, 
and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely defoliating 
them. This plague has been successfully met by the use of the 
arsenic and bran remedy, prepared as follows : Forty pounds of 
bran, two gallons of cheap syrup, five pounds of arsenic, mixed soft 
with water; a tablespoonful thrown by the side of each vine or 
tree. If placed on shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison 
not eaten may be afterAvard gathered up and saved.* 

Red Spider and Other Mites. — Very minute insects, usually dis- 
cernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometinxes destroy the 
leaves, causing them to lose their color and health by their inroads 
upon the leaf surface. The red spider and yellow mite are con- 
spicuous examples; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially 
the almond, prune, and plum. The eggs of the red spider are ruby- 
red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast 
numbers upon the bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the 
finger if it is rubbed over them. The eggs are very hard to kill, 
and treatment is most effective when applied in the spring and 
summer after the mites are hatched out. The popular remedy is 
a thorough dusting of the trees with sulphur. On a large scale the 
sulphur is applied in a cloud by means of a modification of the 
broad-cast barley sower or with the sulphur machines specially 
made for this purpose. On a small scale it may be applied with a 
bellows as for grape-vines, or shaken from a cheese-cloth bag at 
the end of a pole. Sulphur sprays have been found most effective 
in controlling the red spider. The ingredients of the sulphur sprays 
are as prepared as follows : 

Flour Paste. — Take one pound of wheat flour to one gallon of 
water. Place the flour in a box with a screen bottom (common 
window screening), and pour the water through it, until all the 
flour has been washed into the receiving vessel. It will then be 
finely divided and free from lumps. The mixture should then be 
brought to the boiling point, being stirred constantly, thus form- 
ing a thin paste, without lumps. 

The paste is conveniently made in 20-gallon lots, using the com- 
mon 25-gallon kettles so often found on California ranches ; if 
large kettles are not available, the paste can be boiled in less water 
and then diluted to the above proportions before cooling. The 
paste should be strained before using. 

*For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary 
to resort to various devices for excluding the grasshopper, or for destroying them 
upon adjoining fields.. Publications describing such devices are Bulletins 142, 170 
and 192, University Experiment Station, Berkeley. 



RED SPIDER SPRAYS 



559 



Sulfid of Potash Stock Solution.— Granulated, or powdered con- 
centrated lye, 15 pounds; sulphur, 18 pounds; water to make 20 
gallons. Stir the sulphur and lye together in a vessel which will 




Hawk Moth larva. (Philampeles achemon Drury). 

allow plenty of room for boiling. When well mixed, add about 
one pint of water, placing it in a slight hollow in the mixture, and 
stir in slowly. The mixture will soon begin to melt and boil, form- 
ing a red fluid ; stir until the boiling ceases, and then add water to 




Hawk moth (Philampeles achemon Drury). 



560 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

make 20 gallons. This stock solution will keep for a^vhilc, or in- 
definitely when protected from the air. 

Preparation of the Spray Mixture with Sulfid of Potash. — Place 
10 to 15 pounds of sublimed sulphur, or 14 to 20 pounds of ground 
sulphur in the spray tank with 4 gallons of flour paste and 1 to 2 
gallons of the sulfid of potash stock solution; add water to make 
100 gallons. For summer or spring spraying after the danger of 
rains is over, the minimum amount of sulphur is sufficient. 




Winged male. 





Wingless partheno-genetic female. Wingless female. 

Forms of Aphids or Plant Lice, 



Phylloxera. — This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to 
the aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this 
State the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom seen. No 
remedy has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using 
roots resisting the insects, as described in Chapter XXVI. The 
insects are recognized, by the aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow 
lice, chiefly on the rootlets. Full account of the insect is given in 
Bulletin 192, University of California Experiment Station, 



THE SAN JOSE SCALE 



561 



The Woolly Aphis. — A louse of dark red color, occurring in 
groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from the 
bodies of the insects. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest 
of the apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are 
practically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and 
top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that 
the fruitfulness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The use 
of wood ashes around the tree close to the trunk has been benefi- 
cial. Removing the earth from the root-crown and applying from 
two to five pounds of tobacco dust — a refuse from cigar factories- 
destroys the insects at this point and prolongs the effective life of 
the tree. The insect on the branches and twigs can be reduced by 
spraying with the summer washes soon to be given for scale in- 
sects, or the clusters of the insect can be touched with a swab 
dipped in gasoline or benzine, but the oil should not be allowed to 
spread upon the bark. Lady-birds often clear away the woolly 
aphis, after reproduction has fallen below the normal, from the tree 
above ground. Some attention is being given to trial of resistant 
roots and it is likely that such roots will be generally used 
here as in Australia. How such trees are grown is described on 
page 226. 

Scale Insects. — This is a large group of pests which occasion 
greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests 
combined. Therei are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt 
from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are 
apparently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit 
grower should study their life history and classification as laid 
down in the works on entomology. It will only be possible in this 
connection to introduce a few engravings, by which some of the 
most prominent pests can be recognized, and to give some of the 
remedies which are now being most successfully employed against 
them. 

San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosiis). — This was formerly one 
of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales preying 
on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present, owing to the 
energetic war that fruit growers have had to wage against it, has 
become of minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disap- 
peared from some regions where it was formerly most injurious. 
The work of this species is generally readily distinguished from 
other species of scale by the red blotches which are formed wher- 
ever it stings any part of the tree — either branch, leaf or fruit. 
These red blotches are more pronounced in some varieties than in 
others. When the scales are present in large numbers, it causes 
a complete discoloration of the bark clear to the sap-wood. This 
scale has its preference among the deciduous fruits. The apricot 
and certain varieties of cherries and plums are but little afifected. 



rgo CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




Root injury by Phylloxera and forms of insect. 

A healthy root; b, root on which the lice-are working, representing the knots and 
swellings caused by their punctures; c, root deserted by lice and beginning to decay; 
d, d, d, show how the lice appear on the larger roots; e, the nymph; g, winged 
female. After Riley. 

The Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus rapax). — This species affects many- 
kinds of trees, deciduous as well as evergreens. Scale, about one- 
sixteenth of an inch in length ; form, ovoid ; color, drab ; female, 
bright yellow. This insect is found in many places along the coast. 
It is distinguishable easily from the Aspidiotus perniciosus by its 
whitish-yellow color, contrasting with the dark color of the latter. 
Generally this scale has only one brood in the season, and, as com- 
pared with the San Jose scale, it is of little danger, owing to its 
slow-breeding propensities. 

Oyster Shell Scale of Apple (Lepidosaphes ulmi). — This scale af- 
fects the apple chiefly, although sometimes the pear also. Owing 
to the thickness of the armor, it is one of the most difficult of the 
scales to exterminate. It is easily recognized by its long curved 
form. 

Rose and Berry Scale {Aulacaspis rosce). — This scale has such 
striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round white 



VARIOUS SCALE INSECTS 



563 



scale is that of the female, the elongated one with ridges is the 
male. The rose scale infests, besides roses, various fruit bushes, 
especially blackberries and raspberries. Remedy : For raspberries 
and blackberries the cutting down of the canes to the ground should 
be adopted, and the stumps sprayed or washed with kerosene emul- 
sion, recommended under the head of general remedies for scale 
insects. 

Oleander Scale. (Aspidiotus hederac.) — This scale is small, flat, 
yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially ever- 
greens. Lemon trees become badly affected, and the fruit is some- 
times completely covered. The olive is also subject, and the fruit 
of the olive when infested does not mature well, and wherever a 
scale is found, a green blotch makes its appearance. 

Red Scale of Orange and Lemon (Chrysomphales aurantii). — • 
This scale affects citrus trees in both the coast and interior regions. 
The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more in 
diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The appearance of 
trees infested with this pest is very striking, very much resembling 
those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage, the leaf 
presenting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around the scale 
contrasting with the natural green of the leaf. The branches are 
but little troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, becomes completely 
covered with the insects. An orange tree infested with this scale 
gradually becomes sickly and languishes. 

Other Citrus Tree Scales. — Two scales more recently brought 
into this State from Florida are the "purple scale," Lepidosaphes 
beskii, and the "long scale," Lepidosaphes gloverii. The red and pur- 
ple scales of citrus trees are only treated successfully by fumiga- 
tion with hydrocyanic acid gas. This treatment is an elaborate 
one, requiring special appliances which are fully illustrated and 
described in Bulletins 122, 152 and Circular 11, which can be had 
free by application to the Agricultural Experiment Station at Ber- 
keley. 

The Black Scale (Saissetia olece). — This scale is almost a uni- 
versal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though it 
has recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley con- 
ditions. It afifects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees as 
well, and a fungus growing on its exudation causes the black smut, 
which renders tree and fruit unsightly; but this smut accompanies 
other scale insects as well as this one. It is especially trouble- 
some on the olive, and will quickly spread to ornamental plants 
and vines in the garden. It is a very difficult scale to subdue. On 
citrus trees the fumigation method is the only practical recourse. 
On deciduous fruits it requires both winter and summer spraying 



564 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



to hold it in check. In spite of the fact that immense numbers 
are killed by parasites, and perhaps by fungi as well, it is still a 
grievous pest, and should be fought unceasingly. 




The black scale (Saissetia oleae). 




Black scale in mass form. 



Soft Orange Scale (Coccus Hcsperidwn). — This scale is a pest 
of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little wider at 
one end than the other; length, from one- twelfth to one-seventh of 
an inch ; color, dark brown on convex part, and a lighter brown sur- 
rounding margin; it has two indentations on each side, and one on 
posterior end. This scale prefers to collect on the under sides of 
the leaves along the midrib, the upper sides being covered with 
smut. It fortunately is usually held in check by natural agencies. 

Brown Apricot Scale. — The apricot tree, though defying the 
most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by certain scales. 
The black scale is one and the brown apricot scale another. The 
brown apricot scale {Eulecanium Armeniacum) is boat-shaped ; when 
reaching maturity, wrinkled; the color is a shiny brown, darker in 
the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized scale has a length of 
a quarter of an inch, and a width of one-eighth of an inch. This 
scale attacks nearly all kinds of deciduous fruits, but especially the 



VARIOUS SCALE INSECTS 



565 



prune and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about 
the black scale apply to it also. 




Brown apricot scale (Eulecanium armeniacum). 



Other Lecaniums. — ^There are several other scales on fruit trees : 
The filbert scale {hemisphericimi) , which is common in greenhouses 
and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees ; the frosted scale 
(pruinosuni) , very large, oval and convex, covered with dense, 
whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees. 







^^^mk 


'tMm 


^^^a^m 


f^j^^^^^^^^M 


li^^M 



Hemispherical scale (Saissetia hemispherical). 



Cottony Cushion Scale or Fluted Scale {Icerya purchasi). — This 
promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its 
rapid increase and wide range of food plants, but it was speedily 
reduced by an Australian ladybird, Novius (Vedalia) cardinalis, in- 
troduced by Albert Koebele, with such success that specimens were 
for a number of years rarely seen, but have recently become abun- 
dant in some localities. 



566 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Mealy Bugs. — Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs 
(species of dactylopiiis), soft and of a pale pink color, generally cov- 
ered with a whitish mealy powder, hence the name. The common 
species is found in nearly every greenhouse, in the world, and in 
California climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and 
has at various times proved quite troublesome. Unless checked by 




Frosty scale (Eulecanium pruinosan). 

natural enemies, the meal}^ bugs multiply very rapidly, and mass 
themselves in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn black from 
the fungus growth growing on the honeydevv, and the bush presents 
the same appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a 
magnifier the appearance of the mealy bugs, as different from scales 
can be readily recognized. 




Physokermes scale on cherry. 

Remedies for Scale Insects. — Though most of the scale insects 
are attacked by parasitic and predaceous insects, as already stated, 
these natural agencies have generally not proved rapid enough to 
cope with the increase of the scales, and insecticides have to be 
employed to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of 
these washes, many of which will do good work if thoroughly 
applied, which is- usually the secret of success. A few which have 
proved of special value will be given herewith : 



REMEDIES FOR INSECTS 5g7 

A WINTER WASH FOR DECIDUOUS TREES WHEN LEAFLESS 

Lime Salt and Sulphur Remedy. — The following formula has been used with 
great success throughout the State : 

Lime 30 pounds 

Sulphur 20 pounds 

Salt 10 pounds 

Water 60 gallons 

For preparing the wash two vats or boilers are necessary, and if the spraying 
is to be done on a large scale, one of these at least should hold a couple of 
hundred gallons. If but a small number of trees are to be treated, ordinary 
iron kettles will answer the purpose. Of course, the preferable way of cooking 
the wash is by means of live steam. 

First place two or three inches of water in the boiler, and to this add the 
sulphur, which has previously been made into a paste by mixing with hot 
water in order to remove the lumps, or sift the dry sulphur through a mos- 
quito wire-netting and stir it thoroughly. Then add about one-fourth of the 
lime, and when the violent boiling has ceased add another fourth, and so on 
until the required amount of lime has been added. Hot water should be added 
with the lime as needed, so as to make the mixture of a creamy consistency. 
Too much water will "drown" the lime, while on the other hand too little will 
cause incomplete slaking of the lime. In this way the heat generared by the 
slaking of the lime is taken advantage of, and by adding the sulphur first plenty 
of time is given for removing the lumps. 

By the time the lime is thoroughly slaked the fire should continue the boil- 
ing, so that the time of boiling begins with the addition of the lime. The salt 
and about one-fourth of the water should now be added, and the whole boiled 
from one to two hours, keeping it frequently stirred in the meantime. At the 
end of this period screen into the spray tank and add the necessary amount 
of hot water, and apply to the trees hot. The wash when properly made is a 
heavy reddish-brown liquid, very caustic and having a strong sulphur odor. 
The heavier materials settle upon standing, leaving a lighter liquid both in color 
and weight. Stock solutions of lime-sulphur compound are now being furnished 
ready for dilution by California manufacturers. 

WASHES FOR ALL TREES WHEN IN LEAF 

Kerosene Emulsion. — Take kerosene, two gallons ; common soap, or whale-oil 
soap, one-half pound; water, one gallon. Dissolve the soap in the water and 
add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force 
pump and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, forms 
a cream which thickens on cooling. Dilute before using, one part of the emul- 
sion with nine parts of cold water. To obtain this emulsion in proper form 
violent agitation is necessary, the time required depending upon the violence 
of the agitation and temperature of the mixture. Professor Cook's formula 
is this : "Dissolve in two quarts of water one-fourth pound of hard soap by 
heating to the boiling point, then add one pint of kerosene oil and stir violently 
from three to five minutes." This is best done by use of the force pump. This 
mixes the oil permanently, so that it will never separate. Add seven pints 
of water and the wash is ready for use. 

Resin Soap. — Take ten pounds of resin, one and one-half pints of fish 
oil, three pounds of caustic soda (76 per cent), and enough water to make 
fifty gallons. Place all the ingredients together in the boiler with water enough 
to cover them three or four inches. Boil one-half hour, or until the compound 
resembles very black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water, 
or, if cold water is used, add very slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture 
to be diluted to the full amount as used. When spraying, the mixture should 
be perfectly fluid and without sediment. This mixture can be used twice or 
three times as strong on deciduous trees when dormant. 



568 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 




A common outfit in California for cooking the lime, sulphur and salt. 
INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT 



Peach Twig-Borer or Peach Worm,* — This larva is probably 
the most serious insect pest that the California peach grower has 
had to contend with. The creature hibernates as a young larva in 
burrows in the crotches of the tree. 

As soon as the tree begins to grow in the spring the larva be- 
comes active, eats its way out of its winter home and bores into the 
new growing twigs causing them to wither and die. Later genera- 
tions of the worm attack the fruit and from the two forms of attack 
much loss may accrue to the orchardist. 

Destruction of the larvae in their winter burrows overcomes all 
damage from these pests. This can be accomplished by spraying 
with the lime-sulphur compound in the late winter or very early 
spring when the buds are expanding.. 

The Common Borer. — An insect which has done vast injury in 
this State is the "fiat-headed apple borer" (chrysobothris femorata). 
It afifects chiefly apples, peaches and plums, etc., which have been 
injured by sunburn. It is a pale-colored grub with a brown head, 
the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The matured 
beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored on the 
under side. If any tree receives any damage to the bark, either by 
sunburn or other causes, the borer is sure to find it, and it works 



*See Bulletin 144, University of California Experiment Station. 



THE PEACH WORM 



569 



itself into the tree, its castings being the only guide to its presence. 
The best remedy is prevention by protection from sunburn, as de- 
scribed in Chapter XL Whenever a borer is removed, the debris 
and dead wood should be entirely cleaned out and the smooth sur- 




Peach twig showing winter burrow, natural size. 

face left, taking care to preserve the bark as much as possible. Then 
the wound should be smeared over with grafting wax, and a rag 
tied about it. In this manner young trees have been saved, but if 
seriously attacked, it is better to put in a sound tree and protect it. 




Peach worm burrow laid open, showing how the worm begins its spring 

work. 



Sun-Scald Borer. — Another borer which delights in sunburned 
trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pin- 
hole. It is known as the sun-scald beetle (Xyloborus xylo graphus) . 
The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark, 
for this precedes the attack of the beetle. 



570 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The Olive Twig-Borer. — A reddish brown beetle boring into 
twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils 
of the leaves. It is Polycaon confertus, and it breeds in decaying 
logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit 
trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the tree, 
but unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards given, it may 
spoil the shape of a young tree. Remove the afifected branches 
below the burrows of the beetle, or if it would be difficult to replace 
a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance to the 
hole stopped up— this to prevent decay and a weak branch follow- 
ing. Spraying with ill-smelling solutions may prevent their attack, 
but the insect has not been sufficiently abundant to invite serious 
effort thus far. 

Peach Crown-Borer. — A grub boring into peach trees just below 
the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming. 
The insect, Avhich has become quite troublesome in Santa Clara 
County, resembles the Eastern crown-borer of the peach, but is a 
distinct species {Sanninoidca opalescens). The best methods of sup- 
pressing this insect are three. A preventive treatment consists in 
coating the base of the tree a few inches below the surface and a 




A nearly full-grown larva of the Peach-tree Borer. Magnified four diameters. 

foot above with a whitewash, with a pint of coal tar to each five 
pounds of quicklime, put in while the lime is slacking. More 
recently the application of asphaltum "grade D" has been made 
with good results. This should be done in April. A killing treat- 
ment which has proved effective and safe to the tree is carbon 
bisulphide, when wisely used. Mr. Ehrhorn gives these 
precautions : 

Carbon bisulphide should not be applied when the soil is wet or just before 
a rain, nor just after cutting out borers and putting on lime and other pre- 
ventives. Avoid putting it on the bark of the tree. Procure a machine oiler 
which will hold about eight ounces of carbon bisulphide, remove the soil around 
the trunk of the tree about six inches wide and six inches deep, being sure 
to detach all soil adhering to the trunk of the tree. After this is done, fill in 
this space with loose soil to the level again. Now squirt the liquid a few times 
from one to one and one-half inches away from the bark around the tree, and 
cover immediately with six inches of soil. Borers have been killed in frorn 



VARIOUS BORERS 571 

twenty hours to three days; after they are found to be dead, the soil should be 
removed from around the trees so that any remaining fumes of bisulphide can 
be dissipated. 

The method in most general use is known as the "worming process." This 
consists essentially in carefully cutting out and killing the individual borers. 
Special tools have been devised for this work. A full description of these 
processes can be found in Bulletin 143, University of California, College of 
Agriculture. 

Strawberry Root-Borer. — The larva of another clear-winged 
moth (Aegeria impropria) , boring- into the root of the strawberry 
plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing considerable 
damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much earlier 
than otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines has a great 
tendency to kill out the worms, and if the water was retained, say 
four or five days during the winter, all over the plants, doubtless all 
the larvae would be killed. 

Currant and Gooseberry Borer. — A white worm eating out the 
central pith of currant and gooseberry plants — the larva of another 
clear-winged moth {Aegeria tipuliformis). Spraying with whale- 
oil soap after the crop is gathered, pruning out and burning in the 
fall of all old wood which can be spared, will reduce the evil. 

The Raspberry Cane Borer. — This intruder is one of the family 
Tenthredinideae, or saw flies. The very small maggot or larva will 
be found by peeling the bark carefully. This larva can not crawl, 
therefore if the tips be cut and the worm is taken out he will die. 
A better way is to cut all tips, as fast as they show signs of wilting, 
and burn them. Thorough work in topping is absolutely necessary, 
so as to be sure that none of the worms remain to produce flies. 
Topping causes the canes to throw out laterals, thus producing more 
fruit. The canes are not affected after July. 

INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS 

The Apple Worm, — The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) is 
one of the great pests of the State. It preys chiefly upon the apple 
and pear, but the quince and other large fruits are sometimes in- 
vaded by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossom- 
ing of the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit, or on 
adjacent leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten 
days, generally seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the 
fruit, and in twenty days its full growth is attained, and it goes out 
through the side of the apple, and, by means of its spinnaret, reaches 
the ground or some large branch. If landed on the ground, it 
usually seeks the trunk, which it ascends and soon finds a hiding- 
place under the loose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight 
or ten days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. The &gg 



572 



CAIilFORNiA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



is laid all over the fruit, and especially at a point where two fruits 
touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but some- 
times three, and, naturall_y, if unchecked, the increase from the first 
to the last is enormous. The worms escaping from the fruit in the 




The Codlin moth — natural size and greatly enlarged. 

fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of the tree, or in store- 
houses, or in any available dry place. 

On the basis of long experience in the Watsonville district Mr. 
W. H. Volck, county entomologist, gives the following outline of 
operations against the apple worm : 



There are two broods in a season. The first develops from worms that 
have wintered over in protected places both above and in the ground. The 
moths of the first generation begin emerging in April, but very few eggs are 
laid before the middle of May. In this locality egg-laying is then continuous 
until the last of June. 

The full-grown worms of the first generation after emerging from the apples 
seek some hiding place where they may rest for a few days, transforming into 
pupa and then into full-grown moths. 

The moths of the second generation begin laying eggs early in August 
and may continue to do so as late as October or November. It is the worms 
of the second generation that do the greatest amount of damage. 

The codling moth lays its eggs on the surface of the leaves and fruit. The 
eggs are about the size of a small pin-head, circular and flat. The color varies 
from white to pink and red. These eggs are easily seen when the observer 
knows what to look for. 

The young worms hatch from the eggs about ten days after laying, and 
then begin crawling about in search of fruit to burrow into. This short period 
between the hatching of the egg and the entrance into the apple is the only 
time that spraying operations can prove effective. It is clearly impossible to 
accomplish anything by the use of sprays that will only kill by contact, for 
such sprays would have to be applied nearly every day. The spraying opera- 
tion must then leave a deposit of some substance on the fruit that will kill 
the worms when they attempt to burrow through the rind. The only substance 
now known that answers these requirements are the compounds of arsenic. 



SPRAYING FOR THE APPLE WORM 573 

Arsenic is, however, poisonous to plants and must be applied with caution. 
The arsenic compound used must be entirely insoluble in water, and not subject 
to weathering, in order that it shall be perfectly safe. The wet fogs of the 
Pajaro valley summers give arsenical spray compounds a very severe test and 
it has been found that only the best quality of arsenate of lead is able to stand 
it. Arsenate of lead may do very severe burning, however, if it is not of the 
proper quality. 

It is a well known fact that a large percentage of the worms of the first 
generation enter at the blossom ends of the apples. This part is protected or 
more or less closed over by the leaves of the calyx. 

The calyx cups close very shortly after the petals fall, and so it is advised 
by the best authorities to spray as soon after the falling of the blossoms as 
possible in order to leave a deposit of poison there. In the Pajaro valley and 
adjoining sections weather conditions often prevent spraying at this time, but 
where possible to apply, the calyx cup spraying is advised. 

Good results have been obtained by spraying in the early part of May, 
which is considerably after the calyx cups have closed. Spraying at this time 
gives much the same effect as the calyx cup application, especially where it is 
applied with proper thoroughness. This early spraying is applied before any 
worms have appeared and is intended merely to have the poison in readiness for 
the insects when they do come. 

The first codling moth spraying should contain Bordeaux Mixture as a pre- 
caution against the scab : 

Bordeaux Mixture — Copper sulphate 3 pounds, lime 4 pounds, water 50 
gallons. 

Arsenate of Lead — Use 2^/2 to 3 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons 
of Bordeaux. 

The Bordeaux Mixture should be prepared first, and enough space left in 
the tank to allow for the addition of the arsenate of lead and the water required 
to mix it. 

The second spraying should be applied from the last of May to the first 
ten days in June, and is intended to augment the effect of the first spraying 
by further covering the rapidly expanding fruit. 

For this spraying use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. 
No Bordeaux should be used with this spraying, for the previous sprayings 
containing Bordeaux will have controlled the scab, and the further use of the 
fungicide is likely to russet the apples. 

Very few eggs are laid during July, so if the second spraying has been 
applied about the first of June it should suffice to control the first generation 
attack. The second generation worms begin to appear about the first of August, 
so a spraying is due at this time. 

For the third spraying, use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of 
water. 

If the apples are to remain on the trees through September they should 
receive another spraying about the first of this month. 

For the fourth spraying, if the other three have been applied according to 
directions, use i>^ pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. 

The schedule of sprayings above laid out should control the codling moth 
under average conditions, and even where the insect is extremely abundant 
should yield 95 per cent clean fruit. 

The codling moth is much affected by weather conditions, and if there is a 
large amount of cold fog during the summer the damage will be much reduced. 

The Peach Worm. — As already stated, the larva of the peach 
moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is sometimes 
found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the im- 
portance of saving the fruit by proper treatment of the hibernating 
worms which emerge as the blossom buds are opening. 



574 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



The Diabrotica. — A light green beetle with twelve spots on his 
back {Diabrotica soror), is sometimes very injurious to early fruit, 
by eating" into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blos- 
soms. As the insect attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it 
is impossible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous spray. Some- 
times the insects are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and 
around the orchard. 

The Dried Fruit Worm. — Dried fruit is often seriously injured 
after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth not yet determined. 
The eggs are deposited on the fruit either while drying or while in 
the packing-house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of 
the package. The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing, 
by dipping in boiling water, or by heating in an oven and after that 
preventing the access of the moth. Infested fruit can also be treated 
by bisulphide vapor, the method being the same as described for 
nursery stock below. 

ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS 

These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit drying. 
Ants are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes 
in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pouring in a couple 
of ounces of carbon bisulphide and closing again with earth. Yellow 
jackets also nest in the ground in old squirrel or gopher holes, and 
they too can be suffocated with carbon bisulphide or by pouring in 
gasoline or kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are 
troublesome, but are much less numerous than the cave-dwelling 
species. 

To destroy yellow jackets by trapping and poison is also feas- 
ible. W. F. Moyer, of Napa, proceeds in this way : 

Make a thin fruit syrup by mashing the boiling ripe fruit, strain it and add 
a little sugar. Place the syrup dishes on the drying ground where the "jackets" 
are thickest. When the top of the syrup is covered with drowned and drowning 
"jackets," scoop them out with the hand, and crush them with the foot. They 
won't sting unless you pinch them. As the syrup evaporates fill up the dishes 
with water. If a day or two should elapse when no fruit is cut, be sure the 
traps are well cared for, as they will swarm around them thicker than ever, 
especially if the weather is hot. For dishes to place the syrup in, cut kerosene 
cans so as to make two cans, each about six and one-half inches deep. 

Poisoning to carry destruction to the young brood is also prac- 
ticable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his fruit in this 
way : 

I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and several 
pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a man's fist, 
I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bending the wire into 
a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower limbs of trees all 
around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted, and the little insects 



DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK 



575 



busily working at the fragrant liver. The insects carried pieces of the liver 
to their nests, and besides causing the death of those that had been destroying 
my fruit, the next generation of yellow jackets was also destroyed, and so 
complete was the destruction that there were not enough of the little pests in 
that neighborhood the following year to require a repetition of the treatment. 
There is no risk in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return 
to the fruit, and bees will not go near the meat. 



DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK 

Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc., can be freed from 
insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a saucerful of 
carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it with canvas or any 
tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect 
life in forty minutes. 

Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale may be done in 
this way : 

Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of the 
best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled linseed oil to 
make it gas proof. The canvas must be perfectly dry before it is rolled up, or it 
is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous combustion. To fumigate evergreen 
stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one 
fluid ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to 
one hundred cubic feet of enclosed space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when 
dormant, use one-fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has 
been placed over the stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or 
four-gallon glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of 
water, then the sulphuric acid, and place it well under the canvas, the edges of 
which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas escaping, with 
the exception of the edge immediately in front of the jar. The proper amount 
of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into the jar from a long scoop, and 
the tent is immediately closed, and remains so for one hour. 

It is hoped that this chapter will convey trseful hints in the war- 
fare against insects. Whenever questions arise which are not met 
thereby, appeal should be made to the University Experiment 
Station at Berkeley. A condensed statement of useful insecticides 
is issued by the Station, prepared by Professor H. J. Quayle, as 
follows : 

INSECTICIDES 

1. Lime Sulphur: 

Quicklime, 33 pounds; Sulphur, 66 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. 

Sift sulphur through box with screen bottom into boiling tank with 50 
gallons of water. Add the lime and boil 45 minutes to one hour. Stir fre- 
quently. Strain through cheese cloth or burlap and dilute to make 200 gallons. 
If extra lime is desired strain in milk of lime when spray is ready for use. 

2. Commercial Lime Sulphur: 

The standard strength corresponding to the above formula is obtained 
when commercial solution is diluted i to 9. 

Either of the- above for San Jose and other armored scales to be applied 
during dormant season, preferably in early winter or early spring. For Peacn 
Moth as the buds are expanding in the spring. 



576 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



3. Distillate: 

Soap, I pound; Water, 6-12 gallons. 

A 28 deg. gravity oil refined for tree use. Distillate, 12 gallons; Water 200 
gallons. 

For use only with power sprayer with good agitator, which is necessary to 
make a mechanical mixture of the oil and water. 

For the Brown Apricot, Black, and other unarmored scales, and for Woolly 
Aphis, to be applied during dormant season, preferably in early winter. 

4. Distillate-Potash: 

Distillate, 10 gallons; Lye or Caustic Soda, 5 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. 
Preparation and uses same as under 3. Has the advantage of freeing tree 
from moss. 

5. Distillate Tobacco: 

Distillate, 4 gallons ; Black leaf tobacco extract, 3 gallons ; Water, 200 gallons. 
For thrips and plant lice, to be applied by power outfit only. 

6. Kerosene Emulsion: 

Soap, Yz pound; Kerosene, i gallon; Walter, 10 to 25 gallons. 

Dissolve soap in i gallon hot water. Add i gallon kerosene. Mix thor- 
oughly with spray pump by turning nozzle back into mixture. 

For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season, dilute with 
20 to 25 gallons of water. 

For Scale insects. Woolly Aphis and other sucking insects dui^ing dormant 
season, dilute with 10 gallons of water. 

Kerosene emulsion can be used on small scale with hand sprayer. 

7. Miscible Oils: 

Commercial preparations to lie used according to directions. Uses same 
as 3, 4, 5, and 6. Power outfit for application not necessary. 

8. Straight Kerosene: 

Kerosene or Water White Oil, 20 gallons; Water, 200 gallons. 
In use for scale insects of citrus trees. Application by power outfit. Occa- 
sionally also 2 per cent distillate used for same pests. 

9. Soap Solution: 

For plant lice. 

10. Tobacco: 

Tobacco stems, i pound; Water, 4 gallons. 

Steep tobacco in i gallon hot water. Dilute to 3 or 4 gallons. Or, Black 
Leaf extract, i gallon; Water, 60-70 gallons. 

For plant lice, thrips, and other sucking insects during growing season. 

11. Sulphur: 

Dry. — Thoroughly dust over foliage when wet with dew. Hydrated lime 
sometimes used to increase adhesiveness. 

Spray. — Sulphur, 30 pounds; Lime (as milk of lime), 15 pounds; Water, 
200 gallons. 

For red spiders and for silver mite. 

12. Lead Arsenate: 

Lead Arsenate, 6-10 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. 

First mix arsenate of lead with two or three gallons of water. 

For Codling Moth, and all defoliating insects. 



VARIOUS INSECTICIDES 



577 



13. Paris Green: 

Lime, 5 pounds; Paris Green, i r-3 pounds; Water, 200 gallons. 
For Codling Moth, and all defoliating insects. 

14. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas: 

Potassium Cyanide, i part; Sulphuric Acid, i part; Water, 3 parts. 

Place water and acid in earthenware vessel and add cyanide. To be used 
under tents or in tight rooms or boxes. 

For fumigating buildings and the like, i ounce of cyanide to each 100 cu- 
»ft. of space for one hour or more. 

For use against scales' on citrus trees. Ordinary dosage in ounces, found 
by multiplying distance around by distance over top of tented tree and pointing 
off two places. Example : 

Distance around bottom, 40 ft. X Distance over top, 20 ft. = 8.08 oz. cyanide. 

15. Carbon Bisulphide: 

For the fumigation of stored products and underground insects, and for 
squirrels. 

Usual dosage, i pint to 1,000 cu. ft. of space. 

Place liquid in saucers or shallow vessels near top of room if convenient. 
Inflammable : avoid lights. 

For underground insects, a tablespoonful placed in holes a few feet apart. 



CHAPTER XL 



DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES 

A few suggestions concerning pathological conditions which 
arise in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and remedies 
may be helpful : First, diseases demonstrated to be caused by fungi 
and bacteria; second, abnormal conditions, of which the causes are 
not yet clear. 




Effect of mildew on young growth of grape vine. 

Powdery Mildews. — Fungi which bring upon the leaf surface the 
appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause the leaf to 
curl and dry without producing marked swelling, perforation or dis- 
coloration, can be checked by the use of sulphur. The chief of these 
is the mildew of the grape, the mildew of the apple, appearing chiefly 
on the young growth, etc. The way to use sulphur for these fungi 
is to throw finely ground or sublimed sulphur on the young foliage 



578 



LEAF SPOT FUNGI 



579 



at the first sign of the trouble, either by hand or with suitable 
machinery which is fully discussed in Bulletin 186 of the California 
Experiment Station. 

Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deforming Fungi. — These classes 
are usually distinguishable by the results they produce. The mil- 
dew of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the leaves and 
growing fruit ; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach produces swellings 
and contortions of the leaf; the scab of the apple and pear produces 




t ■■• 

0- 




/*;, 



Pacific ffuffAL Press. 



Effect of brown rot on fruit and twigs of apricots. 



first a smoky appearance on the leaf and afterwards causes black 
scabby patches on the fruit and on the young twigs ; the slot-hole 
fungus of the apricot, plum, cherry, and almond cuts roundish holes 
in the leaves as though a shotgun had been discharged through the 
foliage, and then, in the case of the apricot, produces roundish, dark 
red pustules on the fruit; the brown rot which attacks both twigs 
and fruit of apricots, prune, blackberry, etc., produced eruptions on 
plums and peaches ; the rust fungi of the under sides of the leaves, 
first of a yellowish or orange color, changing to dark brown or black. 



580 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



and causing the leaf to fall. These fungi are only slightly, if at all, 
checked by the dry sulphur treatment, and are best subdued by the 
use of copper solutions : 

The Bordeaux Mixture. — Lime, four pounds; bluestone (sulphate of cop- 
per), four pounds; water, forty gallons. Use part of the water to slake the 
line and dissolve the bluestone, which should be done in separate vessels. The 
bluestone should not be put in a metal vessel. If put into a bag and sus- 
pended near the surface of the water, it will dissolve more readily, or hot 
water may be used in making the solution. Both should be cold when mixed, 
and the resultant mixture will be a beautiful blue wash. If mixed hot, a black 
compound (copper oxide) is produced, which reduces the value of the wash. 
After thorough mixing of the solutions, water should be added to bring the 
bulk up to forty gallons. 

This is safe to use on foliage. It may be used much stronger 
when trees are dormant — as strong as ten pounds of lime and ten 
pounds of bluestone to forty gallons of water to kill spores of fungi 
on the bark, but the chief advantage of the stronger mixture is not 
directly in spore-killing but in the longer resistance to removal by 
rains. This winter treatment is a successful preventive of curl-leaf 
on the peach, shot-hole on the apricot, scab on the apple and pear, 
rust on the prune, etc. In the case of the peach blight, which is an 
invasion of the young bark by the shot-hole fungus, an autumn 
spraying is imperative to protect the dormant twigs.* When the 
fungus survives winter treatment or when it attacks the fruit, as in 
case of the apricot particularly, or the leaf in the peach, there should 
follow the weaker Bordeaux in the spring or summer, as early as 
indications of the diseases may appear. In spraying for apple and 
peai* scab, the addition of five pounds of lead arsenate to each one 
hundred gallons of the Bordeaux Mixture makes the application 
answer also for the codlin moth, as described in the preceding 
chapter. 

When it is desirable to use a fungicide on fruit near the picking 
season, or on ornamental plants, which would be disfigured with 
the lime wash, the ammonical copper carbonate may be submitted 
for the Bordeaux Mixture, viz. : Copper carbonate, four ounces ; 
ammonia, forty ounces; water forty gallons. 

The usual way of making this wash is to dissolve copper carbon- 
ate in ammonia, and then dilute. If the carbonate is not fully dis- 
solved before the Avater is added, it can not be further dissolved, and 
not only is the carbonate wasted, but the fluid will not be up to 
standard strength. It is well, therefore, to give the ammonia ample 
time' to act, say over night, before adding the water. 

The lime, salt and sulphur mixture, as already prescribed for 
scale insects in the preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for 



*Consult Bulletin 191 of the University Experiment Station on "California Peach 
.Blight." 



BLIGHTS AND DECAYS' 



581' 



winter use. It is sometimes a satisfactory curl-leaf preventive in the 
interior valleys especially. 

Toadstool Destruction. — Trees are often destroyed through in- 
vasion by toadstool fungi from the decaying roots or wood with 
which their roots come in contact. The injury is often not detected 
until the tree is ruined and it is too late for treatment. If only part 
is'affected, the disease may sometimes be arrested by cutting away 
the diseased parts and disinfection of the exposed tissue with the 
Bordeaux Mixture. 

Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark. — It has been clearly shown by 
investigation at the University Experiment Station that the growth 
of moss, etc., upon the bark of fruit trees is a decided, injury. All 
trees should be assisted to maintain clean, healthy bark. This is 
accomplished by the use of the lime, salt and sulphur mixture al- 
ready prescribed for scale insects. It can also be done by winter 
spraying with caustic soda or potash, one pound to six gallons of 
water. 




Effect upon the nuts of the bacterial blight of walnuts. 

Blights and Decays. — There are several blights which are trace- 
able to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible as are 
the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, because 
they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not reached 
by applications. The blights of the pear, the black heart of the apri- 



582 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



cot, the olive tuberculosis, etc., are instances. Cutting back to 
healthy wood (with tools dipped after each cut in corrosive subli- 
mate, one part to one thousand parts of water), and burning all 
removed parts is the best treatment which can at present be pre- 
scribed. 

The walnut blight, demonstrated by Newton B. Pierce, of Santa 
Ana, to be caused by a bacterium, has so far resisted treatment. The 
disease is recognized by black sunken spots on the hull of the young 
walnut; generally worst at the blossom end and usually first seen 
there early in the season ; later the spots run together and encompass 
considerable areas of the surface. As the disease progresses the nut 
is transformed into a hateful black mass and is utterly destroyed. 
The disease also affects the leaves and young wood. The recourse 
seems to be toward resistant varieties, as stated in the chapter on 
the walnut. 

Lemon Rot, a fungus disease destructive to the fruit in the 
orchard and during curing or in transit, is fully expounded in Bul- 
letin 190 of the University Experiment Station. 




Crown knot on peach just below ground. 



DIEBACK AND GUM DISEASE 



5S3 



DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO 
PARASITIC GROWTHS 

There are a number of prominent troubles which are not trace- 
able to parasitic invasion of any kind, and yet may be in some cases 
promoted by bacterial growth invited by preceding conditions. 

Sour Sap. — There is a fermentation of the sap, quite noticeable 
by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from the 
root to the topmost twigs ; sometimes in one part and not in another. 
Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing water in the soil, 
and the remedy is drainage. Trees thus affected make an effort to 
grow and then the young growth shrivels. Severe cutting back of 
the top to reduce evaporation until the roots can restore their feed- 
ing fibers is the only treatment of the tree, and its success depends 
upon the extent of the root injury. Sour sap may also be caused in 
the branches by the occurrence of frost after the sap flow has 
actually started. Cutting back the diseased parts, as soon as dis- 
covered, to sound wood, is the proper treatment. 

Die-Back. — Dying back of twigs or branches may occur without 
parasitic invasion through root-weakness or partial failure. It may 




Tuberculosis of the olive. 



584 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of which 
will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress. The 
treatment is cutting back to sound wood and correcting the soil con- 
ditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other may be 
needed to advance vigorous growth in the tree. 

Gummosis. — This is a convenient term to designate the gumming 
which is seen on many kinds of trees. As has been said of die-back, 
gumming may result from excess of water or of drouth in the soil. 




The peach bUght — twigs from sprayed and unsprayed trees. 



ROOT KNOT 



585 



Gumming is, therefore, not considered in itself a disease, but rather 
an indication of conditions unfavorable to the thrifty growth of the 
tree. It has been usually found by investigation that trees in perfect 
condition of health, with the moisture just enough and not excessive, 
are not troubled with gumming; but there are cases in which this 
statement does not wholly apply. There is very much in this con- 
nection which is not fully demonstrated as yet and the University 
Plant Disease Laboratory, at Whittier, is undertaking careful and 
wide studies of which preliminary results appear in the University 
Bulletin No. 200. When there is an outbreak of gum where it can 
be treated it is desirable to cleanly remove all the unhealthy bark — 
cutting clean to sound bark and covering the wound with paint or 
wax to exclude the air. 

Root Knots. — These are excrescences upon the roots or at the 
root crown of various trees and of grape-vines, and they have been 
a serious trouble in this State for a good many years. Some of the 
knots have been studied by experts in plant pathology and the cause 
of the trouble demonstrated to be a fungus and the disease infec- 
tious. A satisfactory treatment has, however, been discovered. If 
the knot has not increased in size sufficiently to seriously interfere 
with the growth of the tree it can be smoothly removed, the wound 
treated with the Bordeaux Mixture, and the knot will not reappear 
at the same place. Success has also been had with boring a hole 
into the knot and filling the hole with bluestone solution, but some 
trees have been killed in this way. Bluestone can be used with least 
danger when the tree is dormant. 



CHAPTER XLI 

SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS 

The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are sometimes 
such grievous trespassers upon the fruit plantation that protection 
has to be sought against them. The animals which figure in this 
evil work are mainly species of rodentia, some of them burrowers, 
as, for example, the ground-squirrel and gopher; others, surface 
dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is injury 
done by deer in the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the melon 
patch, but these larger animals may usually be left to the hunters 
and the dogs. 



RABBITS 

Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrowers. 
This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by driving 
them, with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into 
a narrow, fenced inclosure, where they are killed with clubs. Dur- 
ing the last few years tens of thousands have been killed in this way, 
and comparatively few are now found in the localities where the 
method has been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at large 
to vex the fruit planter, and he must protect himself against them. 

Rabbit Fences. — The surest protection against rabbits is a fence 
which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have 
been built in this State. Several styles prevail. The ordinary board 
fence, with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit-proof 
by placing the lower boards close together, with openings of but 




A rabbit-proof fence in successful use in the San Joaquin Valley. 

about two inches between them. A barbed wire, with bards about 
two and one-half inches apart, can be used to advantage by running 
it along at or a little below the surface of the ground to prevent 
scratching under. 

58G 



RABBIT FENCE AND POISON 587 

The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and 
wire nettings, or of perpendicular slats interwoven with wire. Such 
materials are sold in large quantities. A very effective combination 
of barbed wire and netting, which is used in the upper San Joaquin 
Valley, is described as follows : 

The tall posts are regular split redwood posts. The intermediate small ones 
are made by sawing in two the regular posts and splitting them into eight small 
posts, or rather, large stakes. The netting is of galvanized wire, No. 19 gauge, 
and one and one-half inch mesh. This netting is stapled to the posts and stakes 
on the inside, or toward the field. This is of prime importance, as it will not 
serve the purpose if it is placed on the outside. The bottom of the netting 
is to come down to the ground, and the ground must be left hard, and not 
plowed to prevent burrowing or scratching the dirt from underneath, which 
can be easily done if the dirt is softened up. It is not at all necessary to set 
the netting below the ground. In the sketch are shown three barbed wires, 
with barbs two and a half inches apart. These wires must be placed on the 
outside of the posts. This position is also a prime necessity. The lower 
wire is stretched just clear of the surface of the ground. The middle^ wire 
is one inch higher than the top of the netting, and the top wire, which is 
intended only as against cattle, is at a height suitable for the purpose. The 
rabbit-proof portion is comprised in the netting and the two lower wires. 
Hence, if cattle are not feared, and rabbits are the only foe, the top wire can 
be dispensed with, and the posts can be all short with a greater proportion 
of stakes, having only enough stout posts to stand the strain of the wires. 
The theory of this construction is that a rabbit can only pass the fence over 
the top or under the bottom of the netting, and this is effectually prevented 
by the barbed wires, which tear the animal if it attempts either to leap or 
climb over or to scratch under. 

Smears Distasteful to Rabbits. — Where the expense of a fence 
can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprinkling 
the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with substances dis- 
tasteful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Com- 
mercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled on 
leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels 
rabbits. A tea made of steeping quassia chips is said to produce the 
same effect. Rancid grease, liquid manure, putrescent flesh or blood, 
have been approved as a daub for tree trunks, but the efificacy is 
only of limited duration. 

Rabbit Poison. — Pieces of watermelon rind, cantaloupe, or other 
vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with 
strychnine and then scattered around the orchard. Rabbits will not 
touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one meal is 
effective, for the rabbit never gets far away from it. The same re- 
sults can be obtained by the following mixture : To one hundred 
pounds of wheat take nine gallons of water and one pound of phos- 
phorus, one pound of sugar, and one ounce of oil of rhodium. Heat 
the water to boiling point and let it stand all night. Next morning 
stir in flour sufficient to make a sort of paste. The rabbits eat it 
with avidity if scattered about. 



ggg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strych- 
nine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar. 
Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board. 
It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the sugar 
disguises the poison, which kills great numbers. 

GROUND-SQUIRRELS 

Ground-squirrels are poisoned by the use of the poisoned wheats 
which are sold in the markets, or by use of bisulphide of carbon, 
or "smokers," which are arranged to force smoke into the holes. A 
small quantity of bisulphide of carbon poured into the hole, and the 
hole closed with dirt, is probably the most effective squirrel killer, 
when the ground is wet, so that the vapor is held in the burrow. 
Smokers are also most effective when the soil is moist. When the 
ground is dry, poison is the best means of reducing squirrels. The 
following is an exceedingly effective preparation, of which a few 
grains should be placed in or near each hole : 

Take strjxhnine, one ounce ; cyanide of potassium, one and one-half ounces ; 
eggs, one dozen ; honej^, one pint ; vinegar, one and one-half pints ; wheat or 
barley, thirty pounds. Dissolve strychnine in the vinegar ; and you will have to 
pulverize it in the vinegar, or it will gather into a lump. See that it is all dis- 
solved. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium in a little water. Beat the eggs. Mix 
all the ingredients together thoroughly before adding to the barley. Let it stand 
twenty-four hours, mixing often. Spread to dry before using, as it will mold if 
put away wet. 

To keep squirrels from gnawing fruit trees, or climbing and 
getting the fruit, tying a newspaper around the trunk of the tree, 
letting the paper extend out four inches at the upper edges, is said 
to be effective. The rattle of the paper when the squirrels attempt 
to get over it will frighten them. 



GOPHERS 

Gophers can often be destroyed by the use of poisoned wheat, 
especially prepared with a little oil of rhodium, which seems to be 
very attractive to all rodents. Pieces of fruits or vegetable, or the 
succulent stems of alfalfa, into which a few grains of strychnine 
have been inserted by making a cut with a knife-blade and then 
squeezing it together again, are also handy conveyors of death to 
gophers. There are two ways to put poisoned materials into a 
gopher runway. One is to look for fresh open holes and put in the 
poison as far as possible with a long-handled spoon; another is to 
take a round, pointed stick and shove it into the ground near the 
gopher mounds until it strikes their runway, then drop in the 
poisoned bait. Close up the hole with some grass ; level down 
mounds, so that if the poison does not kill all the gophers, you will 



DESTROYING GOPHERS 'ggg 

soon discover their new mounds. If there are many mounds, put the 
poison in a number of places. 

Bisulphide of carbon is also successfully used in killing gophers, 
while the ground is wet, using an injector which is furnished with 
the poison to force the vapor through the long burrows. 

Trapping Gophers, — Some are very successful in using gopher 
traps, of which there are several styles sold. Gophers come to the 
surface in the night, and generally close their holes soon after day- 
break. They frequently emerge again about noon, and a third time 
late in the afternoon. It is best to set the trap in an open hole ; still, 
the holes may be opened if the dirt is still fresh, with a good pr.os- 
pect of the gopher's return. Therefore, the trapper may make his 
rounds three times a day, as above indicated. Care should be exer- 
cised in preparing the hole for the insertion of the trap, a straight 
hole for a distance of at least ten inches, with no lateral branches, 
otherwise the gopher in pushing out the dirt will likely enough 
thrust the trap to one side, cover it up, or spring it,' without being 
exposed to its grasp. The trapper should be supplied with at least 
two varieties of traps — one for the larger gophers, and the other 
for the smaller ones. The common iron gopher trap, which springs 
downward, is excellent for the former, and the small wire trap, which 
springs upward, is generally successful with the later. The* size of 
the hole is indicative of the size of the gopher. Either trap should 
be inserted nearly its full length into the hole, pressed down firmly, 
and a little dirt piled at the outer end to prevent its being easily 
pushed out. After the trap is set, it is well to cover the opening 
with some grass or weeds. Sometimes the holes require a little 
enlarging, but care should be taken to make the fit as close as pos- 
sible, that the body of the gopher may be kept near the center, and 
thus more exposed to the prongs of the trap. In the fourth place, 
the trapper should have a small spade and a little gouge-shaped 
instrument for trimming the hole. 

Gopher Pitfalls. — If gophers are abundant, large numbers can 
be captured in this way : Dig a trench around the orchard or vine- 
yard about the width of a spade and from fourteen to sixteen inches 
deep. In the bottom of the ditches, about a hundred feet apart, sink 
five-gallon oil cans, leaving the tops level with the ditch bottom. 
The gophers migrate in the night, and in attempting to come into 
the inclosure will fall into the ditch and then run along the bottom 
until they drop into the cans. Of course the ditch must not be 
wider than the cans. As many as fifteen live gophers have been 
found in one can. The cats soon learn to help themselves out of 
the cans. The ditch must be kept clean, and if any roads cross 
the tract, set up a board at night, to compel the gophers to tumble 
in the ditch. This ditch should be constructed about the first of 



590 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



June, when the outside feed begins to dry up, and the pests rush for 
the cultivated ground. With such protection from the outside, and 
the use of poison and traps inside, the trees and vines can be saved. 



DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS 

Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectivorous 
birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work in 
disbudding the trees in spring-time, and in destroying ripe fruit, 
that protective measures have to be adopted against them. The 
so-called "California linnet," which is not a linnet, but a finch 
(Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of buds, and the Eng- 
lish sparrow, infamous the world over, are probably the most 
grievous pests, though there are other destructive birds, including 
the beautiful California quail, which is protected by law, and yet 
must be destroyed in some parts of the State or the grape crop must 
be abandoned. 

For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually employed, 
and it is best administered in water. Poisoned water made of one- 
eighth ounce of strychnine to three gallons of water and placed in 
shallow tin pans in the trees, has been widely approved. Cutting 
oranges in halves, spreading strychnine over the cut surface and 
empaling the half oranges on twigs high up in the apricot trees, has 
destroyed hundreds of linnets. Some advocate the use of the shot- 
gun. No. 30 caliber, with a small charge of good powder and No. 10 
shot. As many as five hundred linnets have been killed in two days. 
The advantage of this plan is that one kills linnets and not other 
birds, while poison kills both friends and foes. 



CHAPTER XLII 
PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS 

Though the cHmate of CaHfornia renders unnecessary the pro- 
tection against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some other 
parts of the world have to provide, there is often advantage in secur- 
ing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts. 

The general subject of forest planting in California, and the effect 
of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our fruit in- 
dustries, has received the attention of our best-informed growers. 
The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad valleys 
at right angles to the courses of prevailing or most violent winds, 
has also been urged with great force. These greater enterprises 
and projects are beyond the scope of this treatise. It is rather 
concerning the planting of trees to shelter individual possessions 
that a few suggestions will be offered. 

It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the 
successful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly dependent upon 
proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from 
the ocean the topography may induce strong currents of air which 
will illy affect trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower 
should plant windbreaks, and will find himself well repaid for the 
ground they occupy, by the successful production on the protected 
area. 

In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from occa- 
sional high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer 
or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some 
cases long lines of the sheltering trees have been cut down because 
they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them, 
and afterwards the losses through lack of protection were far greater 
than would have been incurred by retaining them. 

What Kind of Trees to Plant. — This is a question concerning 
which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating in the 
growth of, trees planted to test their suitability, and the future 
planter will have more certain ground to proceed upon than is now 
available. Mention will be made, however, of a few trees, which 
are now most widely grown. 

The most widely-planted shelter tree is the Eucalyptus globulus, 
or Australian blue gum. It is a rapid grower and voracious feeder, 
and wonderful for root extension, for which it has been roundly 
abused. It is doubtful, however, whether we have a better tree for 

591 



592 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

high growth, and consequent large area over which its shelter will 
be felt. It is deficient in undergrowth, and if a close screen is de- 
sired, the planting of eucalyptus and Alonterey cypress (Cupressus 
macrocarpa) is a common practice. The latter also attains good 
height, but its broad, thick base fills the gaps between the bare stems 
of the gum trees. Another tree which has often been planted with 
the blue gum, to supply a thick, low growth, is the pepper tree 
(Schinus molle). It is also grown in rows by itself. It makes a 
dense head, grows rapidly, and flourishes without much care. Trees 
planted eighteen feet apart will soon come together and make a 
dense wall of very beautiful, bright, light-green foliage. The pepper 
is not only a good windbreak, but also an excellent dust-catcher. 
Unlike most trees which are used for this purpose, it does not be- 
come laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, and 
therefore repel the dust particles, which, stopped in their flight by 
the dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the 
ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much 
slower than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and the 
cypress for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the interior 
valleys, make, probably, as perfect a wall of foliage all the year 
round as can be had. The blue gum is, however, somewhat subject 
to frost killing, especially when young, and in very frosty places 
is objected to on that account. A number of other species of 
eucalyptus are now being planted, and are being found more hardy 
than the blue gum. The rostrata, rudis, tereticornis, polyanthcma, 
amygdalina, viminalis and others are of this character. 

The Monterey pine {Pinns insignis) is a rapid, high-growing tree, 
and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well adapted to 
the interior valleys of the central portion of the State. Its foliage is 
dense for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more complete. A 
native white cedar (Libocedrns decurrcns) has also been employed 
as a shelter tree in the San Joaquin Valley, and is commended as 
a rapid grower in the interior as on the coast. Its ability to stand 
drouth, heat and frost is said to exceed that of any of the conifers 
of the seacoast. It stands well in the most exposed situations, as 
its roots run very deep into the earth and it is claimed that it does 
not sap the fertility from the soil around its base, as with the blue 
gum. It is also said to be less subject to frost injury than the 
Monterey cypress and pine. 

All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afford pro- 
tection summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there are many 
which may be well employed. The California black walnut makes 
a very satisfactory growth both in the interior and upon the coast, 
and is largely used for roadside planting. The California broad- 
leaved maple {Acer macrophylla) is very beautiful, rapid in growth, 
and dense in foliage, and the same is true of the box elder {Acer 
negrundo), but probably both trees are especially suited to the coast 



PROTECTION FROM FROST 



593 



regions. Of the poplars, the Carolina (Populus monilifera) is best, 
because of its breadth, density of foliage, and comparative freedom 
from suckering. The locust {Robinia pseudacacia) is used to some 
extent, but its suckering is very objectionable. 

Quite a number of the larger-growing deciduous fruit trees are 
used to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards for the pro- 
tection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chestnut, seedling 
almonds, and apricots are especially commended for such use. 

Growing Trees from Seed. — Much that has been said in Chapter 
VIII will be suggestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter 
trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best grown in boxes, 
and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress especially, do 
best when put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put 
at once in permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply 
worked and the young plant well planted and cared for. 

Cultivation of Shelter Trees. — If one desires rapid growth of 
shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as thor- 
oughly as an orchard. Much disappointment results from allowing 
roadside trees to shift for themselves in a hard, dry soil. With such 
treatment the root extension is naturally most rapid into cultivated 
orchard ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and enrich the 
roadside, and the tree will grow chiefly on the waste land. At the 
same time the roadside will be prevented from producing vast quan- 
tities of weed seed, to be blown over the fence, and the place will 
have a name for neatness, which is too rare even in California. 

PROTECTION FROM FROSTS 

Much attention has been given during recent years to the pro- 
tection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of deciduous 
fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occasional fall of 
the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been 
shown by ample experience that fruits may escape injury by a 
temperature of 28 degrees if the ground surface is wet and the ex- 
posure be but of short duration. Fruit has, therefore, been saved 
by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been nipped by the 
same temperature. About the same result has been secured by^ 
checking radiation of heat by covering the orchard or vineyard with 
a cloud of smoke. Both these protective measures fail when the 
temperature falls a few degrees below 28 degrees or when such 
freezing temperature is continued several hours. During the last 
fifteen years, at Riverside, systematic invention and trial of frost 
prevention has proceeded, and the satisfactory results of one device 
is thus described by Mr. E. W. Holmes : 



594 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 

Satisfactory results have been gained by the use of soft coal, burned in 
wire baskets suspended under or between the trees. When twenty to forty of 
these to the acre were used, we occasionally raised the temperature from three 
to five degrees. More has been claimed; but this is all that I am sure has 
been achieved. However, in a section where the temperature would not go 
below twenty-five or twenty-six degrees for a few hours, this method was 
ample. The outfit costs about ten cents a basket, or four dollars an acre if 
forty baskets are used, and the coal about two and one-half dollars an acre 
per night. The objection is the labor of replenishing the baskets in case of 
their being used the second night, because even if kerosene is poured upon 
the kindling, it is no easy task to light four hundred fires with a torch. Four 
men will be required to do this in proper time. Still, this is the system more 
generally approved here, and because definite and certain results have been 
achieved through it. 

Other effective devices are pots for burning- crude oil, stoves for 
burning briquettes of inflammable material, etc. The best accounts 
not only of the conditions favoring the occurrence of frosts, but the 
details of frost-fending methods are given in the publications of 
Professor A. G. McAdie, U. S. Weather Bureau, Mechanics' Ex- 
change, San Francisco, which are available on application to him. 
Appliances for use in these efforts can be purchased from the Frost 
Prevention Co., of Fresno. 

These resources have been chiefly resorted to for the protectioti 
of citrus fruits, the value of which as the crop is maturing will war- 
rant the cost. With deciduous fruits thus far only smoke and steam 
clouds from burning piles of damp rubbish have been employed, 
except in irrigated regions where, if frost threatens while the ground 
is dry, the limited efficacy of running water is resorted to. There is 
ample field for further experiment in all lines of frost prevention. 

Where there is trouble from early activity of deciduous trees, 
the trees may be kept dormant for a limited time by winter spraying 
with whitewash, which reflects heat and thus prevents activity. Ex- 
periment has shown that heat upon the aerial parts of the tree starts 
the growth ; it does not come from the roots as was formerly 
supposed. 



CHAPTER XLIII 
UTILIZING OF FRUIT WASTES 

Some progress has been recently attained in the securing of hor- 
ticultural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes. There is 
a considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace and lees 
of the wineries in central California. In Southern California citric 
acid factories have to some extent used lemons rejected in packing, 
and some other by-products of citrus fruits have been secured in 
small quantities. Vinegar from wine and cider are, of course, made 
here as everywhere in fruit countries. 

There has arisen also a profitable export demand for fruit pits 
and apricot and peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now 
selling profitably — machinery for cheap extraction of the kernels 
having been contrived by California inventors. The kernels are 
bought by agents of European manufacturers of oils and essences. 
Apricot kernels are used by confectioners in place of almonds. 

Comparative Value of Fruits, and Hay, Grains, Meals, etc. 
100 Pounds Fruit Equivalent to Pounds of 



CD Tj 

FRESH FRUITS 



Apples 

Oranges 

Pears 

Plums 

Prunes 

Apricots 

Nectarines 

Figs 

Grapes 

Watermelons . . . 
Nutmeg Melons. 



34 
33 
40 
50 
46 
40 
43 
50 
50 
22 
19 



DRIED FRUITS 



Dried prunes 
Dried apricots 
Dried peaches 

Dried figs 

Raisins 



175 
194 
190 
186 
216 



< 



20 
19 
23 
30 
27 
23 
26 
30 
30 
13 
11 



104 
115 
113 
110 
128 



24 
23 
30 
36 
33 
29 
30 
37 
37 
16 
13 



125 
138 
135 
132 
153 



15 
14 
17 
22 
20 
17 
19 
23 
23 
10 



78 
86 
85 
83 
97 



15 
14 
18 
24 
22 
18 
20 
24 
24 
10 
9 



82 
90 



85 
100 



17 
16 
20 
25 
23 
20 
22 
26 
26 
11 
9 



97 

95 

93 

108 



16 
15 
19 
24 
22 
19 
21 
25 
25 
11 
9 



84 
93 
91 
89 
103 



-i-i a 

■^ ffl 



18 
17 
20 
26 
24 
20 
23 
27 
27 
12 
10 



92 
102 
100 

97 
111 






16 
15 
19 
24 
22 
19 
21 
25 
25 
11 
9 



84 
93 
91 
89 
103 



13 
12 
15 
20 
18 
15 
17 
20 
20 



67 
74 

72 
71 
82 



9, 03 



13 



11 
14 
13 
11 
12 
14 
14 
6 
5 



53 
51 
50 
59 



12 
15 
20 
18 
15 
17 
20 
20 



76 
74 
72 
84 



The disposition of waste fruit by growers must, however, always 
lie chiefly in the line of feeding animals unless de-natured alcohol 



595 



596 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



enterprises should arise to consume it at prices to pay something 
more than cost of handling. Refuse fresh fruits of all kinds, and 
especially refuse dried fruits have nutritive value which should not 
be lost. A statement of the value of various fruits as compared 
with various cattle foods has been prepared by Prof. M. E. Jaffa, 
of the University Experiment Station, in the adjacent table. 

A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by 
prunes. Using the equivalents in the table below for computation, 
it appears that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes would 
be worth as a substitute $3 per ton ; likewise, if cottonseed meal is 
selling for $21 per ton, the prune value would be about $2.75. At 
the market price of oat hay, the figure for fresh prunes should be 
nearly $3 per ton. 

The dried fruits naturally rank far above the fresh material as 
stock feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table, raisins 
lead in food value ; containing one and one-fourth to one and one- 
half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hays, respec- 
tively; 100 pounds of the fruit being practically equal to the same 
quantity of grain, but to only eighty-two and fifty-nine pounds 
respectively of rice bran and cottonseed meal. 

Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because they 
contain more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value as a 
feeding stuff with wheat bran and almond hulls about half as much 
as alfalfa hay, bran or middlings. 

Concerning the feeding of raisins to hogs, the following state- 
ments are made : "With raisins selling at 2^ cents per pound 
they are much cheaper food for hogs than corn or barley. Raisins 
give the hog a hard sweet meat and are much sought after by the 
butchers. Care must, however, be exercised in feeding raisins to 
hogs, as they are full of sugar, and consequently too rich when fed 
alone. They heat the animal up so that the hogs lose flesh and 
will kill the little pigs of a farrowing sow. For fall and winter 
feeding, pumpkins, citrons and alfalfa are the best feed to give the 
hogs in conjunction with the raisins, but in the spring a change is 
found very beneficial. 

"Many people feeding raisins to hogs are not having the success 
they should because they overfeed their porkers. A pound of 
raisins a day is ample to start in with. After the system of the 
hog has become accustomed to the raisins the amount can be in- 
creased so that the last three weeks each hog should get about 
four pounds of raisins a day. The last ten days, when the finishing 
touches are being put on, the hogs should be allowed all they can 
get." 

Wine grapes rich in sugar have been cheaply dried on the 
ground and used . to advantage for hog feed. One grower says 
that in 1908 failing to get $6 per ton for his grapes, he dried them 



A BLISSFUL CONCLUSION 



597 



and fed them to hogs. Having more than the hogs required, 
grapes were fed to the horses: "The horses soon got a taste for 
them and seemed to thrive well on the new diet and in a short 
time became fat and sleek, while they were being worked as hard 
as ever, and we continued to feed them dried grapes and have 
kept it up for a whole year. The effect seems to have made the 
old horses five years younger, both in looks and in ability to work. 
The hogs fattened up so quick that we thought the pork would be 
soft and sloppy, but to our surprise, we never had better bacon 
and ham than was produced from these grape-fed porkers. It was 
not only solid, but sweet and tender." 

Prune-fed and raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact in 
California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog, 
what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this 
treatise than this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of 
Farmersville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees 
near the house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and 
rested in the shade until he finally grew too fat to move about 
to gather the sweet morsels. By this time his owner became so 
much interested in the case as to carry him his regular figs three 
timies daily. Gradually he grew so fat that his eyes closed entirely, 
but still he ate figs in contentment and delight. 



RECAPITULATION 

'The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear, 
And verdant olives flourish round the year; 
The balmy spirit of the western gale 
Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail; 
Each dropping pear a following pear supplies, 
On apples, apples, figs on figs arise: 
The same mild season gives the blooms to blow, 
The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow." 

Pope's Horn. Odys. Bk. VII. 



INDEX 



Page 

Acorns, edible 44 

Alkaline Soils 7>1 

Alligator Pear 476 

Almond, The 50i 

growing from seed 74 

hulling and bleaching 503 

pollination 505 

propagation 502 

pruning 502, 503 

situations and soils 502 

wild 44 

varieties 505, 5o6 

Animals, injurious 586 

Ants, killing 574 

Apple in California 223 

aphis resistant 226 

aphis woolly 559 

drying 536 

exposures for 225 

gathering 230 

irrigation 230 

localities for 224 

mildew 578 

mission 46 

native crab 39 

planting, distance 227 

picking and packing 232 

pollination 234 

propagation 226 

pruning 227 

scab or smut •. . . 579 

second crop 234 

seedlings, growing 72 

shipping 233 

soils for 225 

Southern California 240 

storehouse for 231 

summer and fall 233 

table of varieties 241 

thinning 140, 229 

varieties, most popular 221 

when to pick 230 

winter 233 

worm 576 

varieties 236 to 240 

Apricot 243 

climatic requirements 244 

diseases of 251 

distances for 247 

drying 536 

exposures for 244 

growing seedlings T2> 

irrigation - 251 

localities for 244 

mission 46 



Page 

Apricot — continued 

old trees 243 

on almond root 246 

planting 247 

pruning 248 

shot-hole fungus 252, 579 

stocks and soils for 246 

table of varieties 252 

thinning 137, 250 

varieties 253 to 255 

Army Worms 548 

Atmospheric humidity 23 

Banana, The 468 

Barberry, native 43 

Bear berry 43 

Bergamot 467 

Berries and currants 479 

Berries, various wild 43 

Birds, poisoning 590 

Blackberry, The 480 

cultivation 481 

hybrids 494 

distances for 480 

longevity of 484 

propagation 480 

pruning 483, 486 

wild 41 

varieties 484 

Blasting for planting 104 

Borers 1 16, 568 

Bones, treatment of iS9 

Bordeaux Mixture 579 

Brush, cutting to kill 66 

Budding, common method 81 

June 89 

over old trees 91 

spring 83 

Bud, cutting to a I3S 

Buds, dormant 90 

Buffalo berry 43 

Burbank's varieties 219, 317, 326 

Cactus fruits 44> 476 

Canned fruit product 525 

Canning industry 526 

Canker worms 550 

Caterpillars 551 

Chain for laying out 103 

Chamisal and chaparral 61 

Charcoal making 66 

Cherimoyer 469 

598 



INDEX 



599 



Page 

Cherry 256 

delayed fruiting of 259 

distances for 260 

exposures for 259 

gum disease 264 

grafting, the .260, 263 

localities for 257 

moisture requirements 258 

old trees 256 

pests and diseases 264 

pruning the 261 

seedlings growing ^2. 

slug 553 

soils for the 257 

stocks for the 260 

table of varieties 266 

wild 40 

varieties 265 to 269 

Chestnut, The 507 

seedlings 74 

wild 44 

Choco or Chayota 469 

Citron, The 467 

Clearing land for fruit 61 

brushy 64 

cost of 62 

grading 67 

steam puller 64 

stump puller 64 

with powder 64 

time to cut to kill 66 

Climate, divisions of California 11 

of California, characteristics of. .10, 19 

of California, why mild 10 

foot-hill 16 

mountain 16 

coast 13 

valley 15 

value of 24 

Cloudiness, east and west 22 

Coast pests and diseases 11 

Codlin moth 571 

Composting 161 

Corner, to find true 99 

Cover crops 166 

Cranberries 487 

wild 42 

Crops between trees or vines 144 

Crystallizing fruit 527 

Cultivation 141 

adequate 143 

hillside 148 

methods of 145 

purposes of 141 

shallow, results of 143 

summer 151, 152 

to retain moisture 141 

without plowing 151 



Page 

Currants 487 

culture of 487, 488 

regions for 488 

varieties grown 489 

wild 42 

Custard apple 469 

Cutworms 548 

Cuttings, fruit trees from "j^y 

Dates 377 

at the missions ■^'j'j 

bearing age of 378 

bearing in Solano County. .. .378, 381 

blooming of 378, 381 

first fruit . 378 

from seed 379 

from suckers 380 

propagation of 379 

requirements of 378 

transplanting 380 

Dewberry 485 

Diabroticas 574 

Die-back 583 

Dormant buds 90 

Drainage desirable 71, 216 

Dried fruits (see fruits) 528 

boxes for 535 

covering . 531 

cutting sheds 532 

dipping . . 534, 542 

drying floors 531 

grading and cleaning 532, 534 

packing 534 

product of 528 

sulphuring 532 

sweating 534 

trays for 530 

worm 535, 574 

Elderberries 41 

Evaporated Fruits 542 

Evaporator, sunshine 537 

Fertilizers in California 155 

caution in use of 165 

for trees and vines 157 

methods of applying 164 

value of green 166 

when necessary 156 

sources of nitrogen 160 

sources of phosphoric acid 158 

sources of potash 159 

Feijoa Sellowiana 470 

Fig 382 

bearing age 388 

budding 384 

caprification 389 

drying 536 

foes of 390 

from cuttings 384 

from seeds 387 



600 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Page 
Fig — continued 

grafting 3^5 

mission 46 

planting and pruning 3^7 

regions for 382 

size of old trees 382 

soils for 382 

varieties 39i to 395 

Filbert growing 508 

wild 44 

Frosts, protection from 591, 593 

Fruit cultivation 141 

Fruit gardens, early Si 

Fruit industries, influence of 57 

Fruit industries, outlook of 58 

Fruit interest, extent of 54, 56 

Fruit shipments 54 

Fruit thinning 136 

Fruit tree acreage 56 

Fruit products, value of 56 

Fruits, crystallizing 527 

drying 528 

drying floors 53i 

graders 534 

grafted, first in California 49 

locations for 12 

value as stock food 595 

Fruit shipments, eastern 54 

Fruit trees, dwarf 51 

Fruits, commercial varieties 219 

Fruits, locations for 12 

Fruits, native 39 

Goat nut, or jajoba 44 

Gooseberry, The 489 

culture of 490 

requirements of 489 

varieties 489 

wild 42 

Gophers, killing 588 

pitfall for 589 

trapping 589 

Grafting 83 

bark 87 

cleft 86 

root 88 

side 86 

time for 93 

top 91 

whip 88 

wax for 85 

waxed bands 85 

Graft, time to 93 

Grafts, planting out 88 

Granadilla 471 

Grape, area of ; 330 

budding 337 

conditions of ripening 20 



Page 
Grape, area of — continued 

cutting grafts 346 

dibbles for planting 349 

diseases of 366 

distance 347 

from cuttings 333 

from layers 333 

from seed 332 

frost injuries 366 

grafting 338 

insects 553 

industry 329 

length of season 33^ 

mildew 578 

number per acre 348 

planting devices 350 

planting in rows 347 

products 56 

pruning 353 

pruning, long 361 

pruning, short 353 

resistant 342 

rooting in nursery 336 

soils for 331 

stakes, twine, etc 353 

suckering 357 

sulphuring 578 

summer pruning 358, 364 

syrup 542 

trellising 364 

varieties 368 

wild 41 

wine, varieties of 373 

Grasshoppers, killing 556 

Growing season, long 24 

Guava, The 47o 

varieties : 

strawberry 470 

lemon 470 

Gummosis 583 

Gypsum, uses of 160 

Hard-pan, breaking up 104 

Heat, deficient on coast 13 

importance of 19 

summer, records of 20 

Heeling in young trees 109 

Hexagonal planting 97 

Hillside, rows on lOO 

use of triangle on 103 

Holes for trees 105 

Huckleberries, wild 42 \ 

Humidity, atmospheric 23 

deficient 26 

east and west 23 

excessive 23 

Insects, injurious 108, 547 

Insects, remedies 575 

Irrigation 170 

distributing manure by 165 

ditches 204 



INDEX 



601 



Page 
Irrigation — continued 

drainage and 216 

evils of excessive 171 

flooding 184 

for citrus fruits 176 

for deciduous fruits 174 

flume building for. 201 

hillside 196 

how much 172 

implements for 186 

in early days 52 

in basins 184, 191 

in checks 184, 190 

in furrows 192 

leveling for 67 

locating contour lines 204 

manure with irrigation water 165 

manurial value of 166 

measurement of water 210 

methods of 182 

nursery 78 

objections answered 171 

relation to cultivation 180 

relation to rainfall 174 

relation to soil 177 

relation to tillage 178 

reservoirs, small 206 

running ditches for 204 

subirrigation 216 

suggestions for 215 

summer 182 

taken from ditches 209 

wells and pumps for 210 

wheels for 209 

when desirable 180 

winter 181 

Jajoba 44 

Jujube of commerce 471 

Jujube, native 43 

Kai Apple 478 

Laying out land for fruit 98 

Leaf lice 554 

Lemon, The 457 

curing 462 

packing 453 

planting and pruning 459 

propagation 459 

situations and soils for .' . . 458 

Varieties : 

Eureka 466 

Lisbon 466 

Villa Franca 466 

Lemon berry 43 

Lice, leaf 560 

Lime, The 466 

Varieties : 

Mexican 466 

Imperial 466 

Lime, uses of 160 



Page 

Loganberry 493, 494 

Loquat, The 471 

Varieties : 

Advance 473 

Blush 473 

Commercial 473 

Pineapple 473 

Premier 473 

Victor 472, 473 

Manure, care of 161 

green 166 

sheep, use of 163 

Manuring at planting 114 

Manzanita berries 43 

Map of orchard and vineyard 115 

Marls 161 

Mealy bugs 566 

Measuring wire 98 

Melon shrub 475 

Melon tree 475 

Mildew 578 

Miner's inch 210 

Mission fruits 45 

Moisture lost by weed growth 143 

retained by cultivation 143 

Morning Glovy, killing 153 

Moss, removing 576, 580 

Mulberry, The 491 

Mulching, after planting 114 

Mulching as substitute for cultivation. 154 

Nectarine 292 

compared with peach 292 

dried 293, 538 

future of 294 

varieties : 293 

Nitrogen for fruits 160, 166 

Nursery 69 

budding and grafting 80 

classes of nursery stock 89 

growing seedlings 71 

imported seedlings 76 

irrigation 78 

laying out and planting ^^ 

pruning in 89 

selection of site for 69, 70 

soil, preparation of 70, 71 

soil, proper for 69 

trees, ages of 89 

trees, digging 109 

trees, disinfecting 575 

trees, selecting 107 

when to plant no 

Nuts growing in California 501 

growing from seed 74 

wild 44 



602 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Page 

Olives 396 

at old missions 46 

budding 401 

canning 412 

climate for 396 

from cuttings 399 

from seed 398 

grafting 402 

localities for 397 

oil making 409 

oil yield of varieties 419 

planting 404 

preferred varieties 413 

pruning 405 

pickling 408, 41 1 

small cuttings 399 

soils for 398 

truncheons 400 

twig borer 570 

wild . 43 

varieties 413 

Orchard land, preparation of 95 

laying out in squares 98 

alternating squares 97 

measure and sight 98 

measuring wire 99 

quincunx planting 100 

time for planting no 

Orange 420 

all the year from California 426 

budding and grafting 439 

California regions discussed 422 

conditions for citrus fruits 430 

diseases 451 

distances for 441 

from cuttings 435 

from layers 436 

from seed 436 

in central California 424 

in southern California 422 

mission 46 

nursery '. 437 

packing . 453 

planting in orchard 441 

product 56, 423 

pruning 445 

ripening first at the north 431 

seedlings, care of 436 

situation and soils for 434 

superiority of semi-tropical 421 

transplanting 442 

world's industry 420 

varieties 452, 453 

Orchard planting 104 

Oregon grape 43 

Oso berry 40 

Popular fruit varieties 221 

Palm nuts 44 

Peach 270 

age at planting 275 

approved lists of 285 



Page 
Peach — continued 

blight 579 

blooming of varieties 284 

curl-leaf 281 

diseases 281 

distance in planting 275 

dormant buds 276 

drying . 537 

early bearing 271 

grafting 280 

growing season of 24 

irrigation 280 

localities for 272 

longevity of 270 

mildew 282 

mission 46 

moth 568 

"peach almond" 275 

pitting clings 538 

propagation 275 

pruning 126, 277 

ripening of varieties 284 

root liorer 570 

seedlings TZ 

soils for 273 

stocks for 275 

table of varieties 283 

thinning 140, 279 

varieties 285 to 291 

Peanut growing 508 

Pear 295 

Bartlett, why popular 296, 297 

blight 302 

characteristics in California 296 

diseases 303 

distances for tlic 299 

drying 537 

dwarf 299 

for alkali soil 296 

irrigation 301 

largest on record 296 

localities for 296 

mission 46 

on quince stock 299 

pollination 304 

propagation of 299 

pruning 300 

seedlings, growing ^2 

sl"g 553 

soils for 298 

storing and ripening 304 

tables of varieties 308 

thinning 301 

varieties 305 to 308 

Pear, Alligator 476 

Pecan, The 509 

Persimmon, Japanese 473 

Persimmon, Virginian 473 

Persimmons, curing. 474 

Phenomenal berry 494 

Phosphates 158 



INDEX 

Page 

Phylloxera 559 

Pioneers, planting by 46 

Pineapple 474 

Pine nuts 44 

Pistachio, The 510 

Planting, conditions favoring iii 

bar for setting 106 

cutting back after 116, 124 

depth of 114 

digging holes for 104 

laying off for 98 

mulching iiS 

operation of 112 

preparing land for 95 

speed in 114 

time for no 

triangular tree setter 107 

use of manure 114 

use of water 113 

Plowing, devices for . 146 

orchard and vineyard 146 

on hillside 148 

to break hard-pan 95, 148 

Plow, laying off with 98 

Plums and prunes 309 

California false 40 

confusion in names 317 

definition of a prune 309 

drying 539 

from the root 312 

in southern California 311 

length of season 309 

localities for 310 

mission 46 

myrobalan 311 

planting _ 313 

pollination 319 

propagation 311 

pruning the 313 

seedlings "JZ 

stocks and soils 311 

table of varieties 320 

wild 40 

varieties 321 to 326 

Plumcot, The 317 

Pomegranate, The 475 

Pomelo 455 

varieties 456 

packing 453 

Potash 159 

Prickly Pear 44, 476 

Prune curing 538 

Pruning 117 

Bearing Trees 127 

California style 120 

effects of 119 

gathering brush 136 

influenced by location 121 



• • 603 

Page 
Pruning — continued 

low, advantages of 118 

nursery 89 

prunings as fertilizer 163 

purposes of 118 

times for 130 

tools 134 

to renew old trees 127, 133 

vase form, securing 120 

wounds, covering 134 

Quince 327 

demand for Z'^7 

propagation 327 

pruning . 328 

soils for 328 

varieties 328 

Quincunx planting lOO 

Rabbit, fences 586 

Rabbits, destroying 587 

poisons for 587 

smears for 587 

Rainfall, records of 12 

Raisin making 53, 540 

Raspberry, The 491 

black-caps 492 

hybrids 494 

pruning . .'. 491 

varieties, popular 492 

wild 41 

Red Spider 557 

Root rot 580 

Root-knots 585 

Russian introduction of fruits 48 

Salal 43 

Salmon berry 41 

Scale Insects 560 

black 563 

brown apricot 564 

cottony cushion 565 

pear 562 

orange, red 563 

orange, soft 564 

oyster shell 562 

rose and berry 562 

San Jose 561 

remedies for 567, 575 

Sapota, white 477 

Scions, care of 84 

selection of 84 

Sea Fig 43 

Seed, growing trees from 74 

Seedlings, imported Ti, 76 

Septuple laying off 100 

Service Berry 43 



604' 



CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 



Page 

Soils for fruits 27 

adobe 35 

alkali Z1 

alluvial ZZ 

bed-rock or hard-pan 36 

characteristics of California 27 

classification of 30 

clay 34 

defective 30 

desert 32 

examination of Zl 

granitic 34 

loams 30 

mesa 32 

plains 31 

red 34 

river bottom 34 

sedimentary or silty 33 

shallow, blasting 104 

Sour sap 5^2 

Spider, red 557 

Squares, laying off in 98 

Squirrels, destroying 588 

Strawberry 495 

care of 499 

continuous bearing 499 

laying out for 496 

planting 498 

propagation 49^ 

situations and soils 495 

varieties, popular 500 

wild 42, 500 

Strawberry tree 475 

Sunburn, protection from 116 

Sunlight, value of direct 21 

Sunshine, evaporating 528 

Sunshine, records of 22 

Temperature, lowest 20 

Temperature, records of 21 

Thinning fruit 136 

Thrips 554 



Page 

Tomato tree 478 

Toyon 43 

Trees, activity and rest of. 17 

heeling in 109 

selecting 107 

Tree-setters 106, 107 

Triangle for laying out 102 

Tuna fruit 44, 476 

Tussock moth 552 

Vine hoppers 555 

Walnut, black 44, 511 

Walnut, English . . . .■..•.■.•■ 510 

bacteriosis or blight 581 

bleaching 522 

blossoms of 521 

budding 513 

culture and soils 510 

gathering and drying. 521 

grafting 515 

growing seedlings 74, 514 

hybrids 511 

propagation and planting 511, 5iy 

pruning 520 

varieties 523 

Water measurements 210 

Weed killing by cultivation 153 

Weeds, evaporation by 143 

Weir measurement 212 

Whitewash against sunburn 116 

Wild Fruits of California 39 

Windbreaks 591 

trees for 592 

Wine grapes 260 

Winery refuse as manure 164 

Winter-killing, unknown 19 

Wire, measuring 98 

Woolly aphis 559 

Wounds, covering 135 

Yellow jackets, killing 574 



California Vegetables 



I N 



GARDEN AND FIELD 



A MANUAL OF PRACTICE WITH AND WITHOUT IRRIGATION 



By EDWARD J. WICKSON, A. M. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter. Chapter. 

I. Vegetable Growing in California. XX. 

II. Farmers' Gardens in California. XXI. 

III. California Climate as Related to XXII. 

Vegetable Growing. XXIII. 

IV. Vegetable Soils of California. XXIV. 
V. Garden Irrigation. XXV. 

VI. Garden Drainage in California. XXVI. 

VII. Cultivation. XXVII. 

VIII. Fertilization. XXVIII. 

IX. Garden Location and Arrange- XXIX. 

ment. XXX. 

X. The Planting Season. XXXI. 

XI. Propagation. XXXII. 

XII. Asparagus. XXXIII. 

XIII. Artichokes. XXXIV. 

XrV. Beans. XXXV. 

XV. Beet. XXXVI. 

XVI. Cabbage Family. 

XVII. Carrot, Parsnip, and Salsify. XXXVII. 

XVIII. Celery. XXXIII. 

XIX. Chicory. XXXIX. 



Corn. 

Cucumber. 

Egg Plant. 

Lettuce. 

Melons. 

Onion Family. 

Peas. 

Peppers. 

Potatoes. 

Radishes. 

Rhubarb. 

Spinach. 

Squashes. 

Tomato. 

Turnip. 

Vegetable Sundries. 

Vegetables for Canning and 

Drying. 
Seed Sowing in California. 
Garden Protection. 
Weeds in California. 



Second Edition — Revised and Extended 



COMMENDATION OF "CALIFORNIA VEGETABLES" 

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vegetable growing in California, not only on a large scale, but to the large number 
who cultivate these products for their own consumption. — San Francisco Call. 

We take no risk in advising every Californian who has a garden spot to procure 
a copy. — San Francisco Chronicle. 

Not only interesting but valuable to every one in this state who cultivates ever 
so small a lot of ground. The author is eminently qualified for the work which he 
has just completed. — San Francisco Bulletin. . -r. ■ t ■,. 

It treats of the proper culture of all leading vegetables in California. It is tuu 
of information and instruction. It is so clear that whoever uses it as a guide book 
can not go astray in vegetable culture. The work is freely illustrated and hand- 
somely bound. — Sacramento Record-Union. ^ j.. 

Covers every part of the state in technical analysis and physical demonstration. 
— Petaluma Courier. . 

It treats of every feature of vegetable production in plain, common-sense terms, 
and gives reasons for its assertions. — Pomona Times. 



Price $2.00, Postpaid Anywhere 

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